The use of cost-effective methods for measurement of WHC is common in underdeveloped and developing countries, but the accuracy of these cost-effective methods compared to the sophisticated and more expensive alternatives is unclear. To compare different WHC measurement methods, 30 random samples of clay loam and sandy clay loam soils of Jhansi, India were used. The methods compared here were: FAO in-situ method (FAO), Keen-Raczkowski box method (KM), funnel method (FM), column method (CM) and pressure plate method (PPA). For WHC measurements the PPA results were comparable to KM and FM methods for sandy clay loam, and KM and FAO methods for clay loam. Therefore, until a reliable method that matches the results of sophisticated analytical methods of soil water measurement is available, different inexpensive analytical methods can be used, but they must be chosen with caution. The findings from this study will facilitate appropriate selection of a suitable method.

Assessing the impact of planting methods and irrigation levels is needed to determine the effects on maize root morphological traits, grain yield, and water productivity in semi-arid regions. A study was initiated on maize (Zea mays L.) from 2015 to 2016, including three planting methods [i.e. broad bed and furrow (BBF), shallow and narrow furrow (SNF) and deep and wider furrow (DWF)] and four irrigation levels [i.e. irrigation once in ten days (I_10D), irrigation at 40% depletion of available soil moisture (DASM, I₄₀), irrigation at 50% DASM (I₅₀) and irrigation at 60% DASM (I₆₀)] arranged in a split-plot design with three replications. Results reveal that the DWF method has increased root length, root volume, root surface area and root dry weight compared to SNF and BBF (p < 0.05). DWF and SNF resulted in higher grain yield than BBF, although the DWF grain yield was non-significant with SNF but resulted in 22.40% higher irrigation application. Irrigation at I₅₀ had a significant effect on root length, root surface area, and grain yield, regardless of planting methods. Therefore, where irrigation has been a costly and limited farm input, the practice of SNF and deficit irrigation (I₅₀) could be a viable option for greater water saving and higher grain yields of maize.

Global warming-induced abiotic stresses, such as waterlogging, significantly threaten crop yields. Increased rainfall intensity in recent years has exacerbated waterlogging severity, especially in lowlands and heavy soils. Its intensity is projected to increase by 14–35% in the future, posing a serious risk to crop production and the achievement of sustainable development goals. Soybean, a major global commercial crop cultivated across diverse climates, is highly sensitive to waterlogging, with yield losses of up to 83% due to impaired root morphology and growth. Therefore, understanding the stage-specific response of soybean to varying intensities of waterlogging under different climate regimes is crucial to mitigate the impact of climate change. This study evaluated two climate regimes (Summer: C_S and Rainy: C_R), four growth stages (S₁₅: 15 days after emergence, S₃₀, S₄₅, and S₆₀), and five waterlogging durations (D₂: 2 days, D₄, D₆, D₈, and D₁₀) using a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with seven replications in 2023. Results revealed that waterlogging adversely affected soybean root morphology (reducing root volume by 8.6% and dry weight by 5.3%) and growth (decreasing leaf area by ~ 6% and dry matter by 48.2%), with more severe effects observed during the summer compared to the rainy season. Among growth stages, soybean was most sensitive at S₄₅, showing greater reductions in growth attributes and seed yield (~ 64.9%) across climate regimes. Prolonged waterlogging (2–10 days) had a pronounced negative impact on root and shoot parameters, resulting in yield reductions of 25.4–47.8% during summer and 47.0–68.2% during the rainy season, compared to the control. Yield stability was highest at D₂ (yield stability index: 0.53) with minimal yield reductions, while D₁₀ caused the greatest yield loss (~ 58%). Interestingly, the summer climate regime, characterized by bright sunshine hours and higher temperatures, supported better post-stress recovery, leading to higher grain yields. In conclusion, waterlogging during C_R × S₄₅ × D₁₀ caused the most substantial yield reduction (~ 91%).

Agriculture in a water-limited environment is critically important for today and for the future. This research evaluates the impact of deficit irrigation in different planting methods on the physio-morphological traits, grain yield and WUE of maize (Zea mays L.). The experiment was carried out in 2015 and 2016, consisting of three planting methods (i.e., BBF, SNF, and DWF) and four irrigation levels (i.e., I_10D: irrigation once in ten days, I₄₀: irrigation at 40% DASM, I₅₀: irrigation at 50% DASM, and I₆₀: irrigation at 60% DASM). The results reveal that varying degrees of water stress due to planting methods and irrigation levels greatly influenced the maize physio-morphological traits and yield attributes. The combined effect of DWF + I₅₀ benefited the maize in terms of higher leaf area, RWC, SPAD values, CGR, and LAD, followed by the SNF method at 60 DAS. As a result, DWF + I₅₀ and SNF + I₅₀ had higher 100 grain weight (30.5 to 31.8 g), cob weight (181.4 to 189.6 g cob⁻¹) and grain yield (35.3% to 36.4%) compared to other treatments. However, the reduction in the number of irrigations (24.0%) under SNF + I₅₀ resulted in a 34% water saving. Thus, under a water-limited situation in semi-arid tropics, the practice of the SNF method + I₅₀ could be an alternative way to explore the physio-morphological benefits in maize.