The study examines the nature of disputes, which are prevalent in water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) programming and suggests possible conflict management and resolution mechanisms. An online web-based survey, hosted on the popular Survey Monkey platform, was conducted through the Somalia WASH Cluster to 40 ‘active’ member organisations. A response rate of 73% was achieved. Thematic analysis was conducted using NVivo 12. The type of conflicts identified are as follows: visible versus non-visible benefits, emergency versus development focus, the young and the old, insiders versus outsiders, local versus donor priorities and men versus women. The article goes on to suggest possible conflict resolution mechanisms, which include: planning together with communities, continuum programming, setting up early warning systems, harmonisation of institutions managing WASH resources and the development of localised Memorandums of Understanding. It is recommended that the complexities of conflict and fragility require different approaches. The approaches would apply to both relief and developmental WASH programming.

The paper assessed access to WASH service in the Jariban district of Somalia. One hundred and sixty-seven households were sampled to administer a questionnaire. Central tendency and logistical regression were used to analyse the data in SPSS 26. The findings show that access to safe drinking water sources is 57.5%. Of the 42.5% of respondents who did not access safe drinking water source, only 10.8% confirmed that they treat drinking water at the point of use. The main reason for household water treatment was the positive mindset (.272) of the household head towards water treatment. The majority (80.2%) of the respondents access approximately 13 litres per person per day. Woman-headed households were more likely to treat water before drinking than male-headed households. Only 26.9% of the respondents accessed basic sanitation. Of the respondents, 55.7% did not share latrines, while 44.3% share resulting in open defecation. WASH access in the study area remains low, resulting in health-related risks, including diarrhoeal disease. The limitation is that the paper only focused on access to WASH facilities in fragile contexts. A cross-sectional analysis of biological, physical and chemical properties of water at the source and point of use is recommended for further research.

Between 2000 and 2008, Zimbabwe experienced debilitating economic, political and social problems. The crises were characterised by political unrest, economic downturn, hyperinflation, food insecurity, breakdown in the provision of basic social services and the intensification of the effects of global warming and climate change. The period saw the entry of many international non-governmental organisations (NGOs), including GOAL Zimbabwe, which came to deal with the unfolding humanitarian crisis. Key informant interviews were conducted with 21 interviewees from GOAL, Buhera Rural District Council officials, Agritex officers and project beneficiaries. Atlas Ti was used to analyse the data into key themes. In 2010, GOAL Zimbabwe chose to stay and reincarnate itself and went through a very difficult process from being a relief to a development organisation. Results show the process on which GOAL embarked in transitioning from relief to recovery. The evidence coming out of the discussions indicates that with the right levels of support from development partners and commitment by communities, it is possible for both organisations and communities to transition from a humanitarian and relief mindset to a development paradigm.

The paper investigated the social and financial resources’ interface in WASH programmes for vulnerable communities. Nineteen villages were randomly selected from the Jariban district in Somalia using the random number generator based on the village list. Data was collected in a sequential methodology that started with transect walks to observe and record the WASH infrastructure. Thirty-eight focus group discussions and desktop reviews triangulated transact walk recordings. The findings indicate minimum to zero investments towards WASH infrastructure in Jariban from the state government, with more dependency on the donor community. The study revealed that resources for the construction of latrines and water sources come from the following sources, NGOs (54.3%), diaspora community (34.5%) and community contributions (11.2%). The findings revealed a backlog in the WASH infrastructure, resulting in low access to water supply and sanitation services. The results demonstrate limited resource allocation by both the government and community, affecting the WASH infrastructure’s sustainability and further development. Due to the backlog in investments, particularly on improved latrines, it is concluded that their usage is low and a hindrance to having access to sanitation, hygiene and water as per the SDG goals, of leaving no one behind. While investment towards WASH in Jariban demonstrates multiple potential sources, there is a need to strengthen domestic resource mobilisation and explore governments’ role and capacity to secure WASH infrastructure investments. It is also recommended to explore how to tax the remittances to fund WASH infrastructure development and the private sector’s role in WASH infrastructure investment.

The capacity of governments, partners, and clients (population) to deliver services is shaped by many factors, including policies, politics, funds, calamities, history, and geopolitical characterisation. A Systematic Literature Review with the support of Preferred Reporting Items (PRI) guidelines was adopted. Legislation that governs the formation and functionality of developmental structures spanning 1980 when Zimbabwe gained independence was reviewed. The authors also examined fifty-nine journals and books published between 2018 and 2024. The reviewed journals and books provided summaries and promulgated how subnational governance promotes rural development in African and Asian countries. Results showed that the state functions of public administration systems depend on the policies, and strategies and institutional and legislative frameworks referred to as state writs and web of legalities. Catastrophes affect governments’ planning and use of resources beyond fiscal budgets’ limits. When such happens, the coffers meant for other service delivery are emptied, thus diverging from the original intent. There have been spontaneous words without action where governments were called to action as a culmination of economic and political pressures that challenge the customary public administration models. Zimbabwe has connoted and implemented many public administration advances. There is a need to research further why some do not garner enough traction.

The chapter examines the importance of population dynamics in community Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) planning. This study’s population data for each village is based on the 2019 village registers. Social demographic data was collected using a comprehensive household survey in which structured questionnaires were administered to 167 community members in the Jariban district. The quantitative demographic data was subjected to descriptive statistics, regression, predictive and trend analysis. The segregation of men’s and women’s numbers is critical in planning services and predicting localised population growth, whereas gradual population growth has worked well for estimating populations at the provincial and national levels, estimating populations at the village level (for the year to come) in fragile contexts should be done using predictive equations. Population growth rates at a national scale may misrepresent that growth is linear when, in fact, many factors, such as disaster-induced migration, result in some villages losing population and others gaining exponentially. We should ascertain how droughts, wars, searching for pastures, water availability and security significantly contribute to population growth in each studied village. Furthermore, more studies should investigate whether village population estimates align with the national population estimates of 3% currently used by the World Population Review.