The formalin test was originally developed by Dubuisson and Dennis (1977), and has since been extensively used to assess pain-related responses. Rats and mice are the most frequently used animal models, though other species including cats, rabbits, guinea pigs, Octodon degus, domestic fowls, crocodiles, tortoises, toads and primates have also been employed. The injection of formalin into the skin of rodent hindpaws to cause spontaneous pain-related flinch behaviors is the most commonly used procedure. The resulting nociceptive response can be divided into two phases differing in timing, duration and underlying mechanisms, and is responsive to many classes of analgesic drugs (Coderre et al., 1990; Hunskaar and Hole, 1987; Rosland et al., 1990; Taylor et al., 1995). The behavioral and electrophysiological responses to formalin consist of an acute phase (Phase I) of a short-lasting response, which is believed to reflect the activity of C-fiber afferent nociceptors. After a short quiescent period, the acute phase is followed by a continuous prolonged response (Phase II), which is believed to be due to central sensitization of the spinal dorsal horn neurons as a result of the initial barrage of input from C-fiber nociceptive afferents during the early phase (Coderre et al., 1993; Dickenson and Sullivan, 1987; Raboisson et al., 1995; Shibata et al., 1989). In this respect, the formalin test has been regarded as a more satisfactory model of pain than tests producing phasic pain like the hot-plate and tail-flick tests (Abbott et al., 1981). Here, we describe the procedures for generating an efficient and reproducible formalin test in rats and mice.

Herein, we report the mitochondrial genomic characteristics of three insect pests, Notobitus meleagris, Macropes harringtonae, and Homoeocerus bipunctatus, collected from bamboo plants in Guizhou Province, China. For the first time, the damaged conditions and life histories of M. harringtonae and H. bipunctatus are described in detail and digital photographs of all their life stages are provided. Simultaneously, the mitochondrial genome sequences of three bamboo pests were sequenced and analyzed. Idiocerus laurifoliae and Nilaparvata lugens were used as outgroups, and the phylogenetic trees were constructed. The mitochondrial genomes of the three bamboo pests contained 37 classical genes, including 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), two ribosomal RNA genes (rRNAs), 22 transfer RNAs (tRNAs), and a control region, with a total length of 16,199 bp, 15,314 bp, and 16,706 bp, respectively. The A+T values of the three bamboo pests were similar, and trnS1 was a cloverleaf structure with missing arms. The phylogenetic analyses, using the Bayesian inference (BI) and Maximum likelihood (ML), supported that N. meleagris and H. bipunctatus belonged to the Coreoidea family, whereas M. harringtonae belonged to the Lygaeoidea family with high support values. This study involves the first complete sequencing of the mitochondrial genomes of two bamboo pests. By adding these newly sequenced mitochondrial genome data and detailed descriptions of life histories, the database of bamboo pests is improved. These data also provide information for the development of bamboo pest control methods by quick identification techniques and the use of detailed photographs.

To explore the differences in mitogenome variation and phylogenetics among lineages of the Hemiptera superfamily Fulgoroidea, we sequenced four new mitogenomes of Caliscelidae: two species of the genus Bambusicaliscelis (Caliscelinae: Caliscelini), namely Bambusicaliscelis flavus and B. fanjingensis, and two species of the genus Youtuus (Ommatidiotinae: Augilini), namely Youtuus strigatus and Y. erythrus. The four mitogenomes were 15,922–16,640 bp (base pair) in length, with 37 mitochondrial genes and an AT-rich region. Gene content and arrangement were similar to those of most other sequenced hexapod mitogenomes. All protein-coding genes (PCGs) started with a canonical ATN or GTG and ended with TAA or an incomplete stop codon single T. Except for two transfer RNAs (tRNAs; trnS1 and trnV) lacking a dihydrouridine arm in the four species and trnC lacking a dihydrouridine stem in the Youtuus species, the remaining tRNAs could fold into canonical cloverleaf secondary structures. Phylogenetic analyses based on sequence data of 13 PCGs in the 28 Fulgoroidea species and two outgroups revealed that Delphacidae was monophyletic with strong support. Our data suggest that Fulgoridae is more ancient than Achilidae. Furthermore, Flatidae, Issidae, and Ricaniidae always cluster to form a sister group to Caliscelidae.

Three new species of the genus Parandes Muir, 1925 (Hemiptera, Fulgoromorpha, Cixiidae, Andini), P. elongatus Lv & Chen, sp. nov., P. guangxiensis Lv & Chen, sp. nov. and P. hamatus Lv & Chen, sp. nov., are described and illustrated from Southwest China (Yunnan and Guangxi) to give the genus six species in total. An updated identification key and checklist to all known species of Parandes are provided, as well as a map of their geographic distributions.

The planthopper genus Augilina Melichar, 1914, is recorded in China for the first time. Two new species of the genus Augilina, A. tetraina Chen & Gong sp. nov. and A. triaina Chen & Gong sp. nov., are described and illustrated from South China. The genus now has a total of four described species. New generic characteristics are proposed and photographs of the new species are provided. A checklist and a key to the species of Augilina are also included.

New genus and new species of bamboo-feeding planthopper tribe Augilini, Neosymplana vittatum gen. et sp. n. is described from southwestern China. A key to Chinese genera of Augilini is given. The photos of the habitat of the species described are provided.