Carbon sequestered as soil inorganic carbon (SIC) provides a regulating ecosystem service, which can be assigned a monetary value based on the avoided social cost of carbon (SC-CO₂). By definition, the SC-CO₂ is a measure, in dollars, of the long-term damage resulting from the emission of a metric ton of carbon dioxide (CO₂). Therefore, this dollar figure also represents the value of damages avoided due to an equivalent reduction or sequestration of CO₂. The objective of this study was to assess the value of SIC stocks in the contiguous United States (U.S.) by soil order, soil depth (0–20, 20–100, 100–200 cm), land resource region (LRR), state, and region using information from the State Soil Geographic (STATSGO) database together with a reported SC-CO₂ of $42 (U.S. dollars). With this approach, the calculated monetary value for total SIC storage in the contiguous U.S. was between $3.48T (i.e., $3.48 trillion U.S. dollars, where T = trillion = 10¹²) and $14.4T, with a midpoint value of $8.34T. Soil orders with the highest (midpoint) values for SIC storage were: 1) Mollisols ($3.57T), 2) Aridisols ($1.99T), and 3) Alfisols ($841B) (i.e., $841B is 841 billion U.S. dollars, where B = billion = 10⁹). When normalized by land area, the soil orders with the highest (midpoint) values for SIC storage were: 1) Vertisols ($3.57 m⁻²), 2) Aridisols ($2.45 m⁻²), and 3) Mollisols ($1.77 m⁻²). Most of the SIC value was associated with the 100–200 cm depth interval, with a midpoint value of $4T and an area-normalized value of $0.54 m⁻². The LRRs with the highest (midpoint) values of SIC storage were: 1) D—Western Range and Irrigated Region ($1.77T), 2) H—Central Great Plains Winter Wheat and Range Region ($1.49T), and 3) M—Central Feed Grains and Livestock Region ($1.02T). When normalized by land area, the LRRs were ranked: 1) I—Southwest Plateaus and Plains Range and Cotton Region ($5.36 m⁻²), 2) J—Southwestern Prairies Cotton and Forage Region ($4.56 m⁻²), and 3) H—Central Great Plains Winter Wheat and Range Region ($2.56 m⁻²). States with the highest (midpoint) values for SIC storage were: 1) Texas ($2.96T), 2) New Mexico ($572B), and 3) Montana ($524B). When normalized by land area, the states were ranked: 1) Texas ($4.47 m⁻²), 2) Utah ($2.77 m⁻²), and 3) Minnesota ($2.17 m⁻²). Lastly, regions with the highest (midpoint) values for SIC storage were: 1) South Central ($3.13T), 2) West ($1.98T), and 3) Northern Plains ($1.62T). When normalized by land area, the regions were ranked: 1) South Central ($2.90 m⁻²), 2) Midwest ($1.32 m⁻²), and 3) West ($1.02 m⁻²). Results from this study demonstrate a new approach for assigning monetary values to SIC stocks at various scales based on their role in providing ecosystem services for climate regulation and carbon sequestration.

Community supported agriculture (CSA) serves as a platform for local producers, especially for small size farms, to sell fresh, local products directly to its members. CSA is an important approach to promote local economic growth and contribute to sustainable agriculture. Although CSA is widely accepted across the United States, the total number of CSA membership is still very low. It is important to determine the factors that affect the future development of CSA because of its social and environmental benefits. In this study, we analyze how the motivation, barriers, and methods of advertisement influence the participation dynamics of CSA by segmenting consumers based on their past, current, and future CSA participation. Based on a national survey with 795 responses, the results show that the younger generation, high-income families, and people who support sustainable agriculture are more likely to renew their CSA subscription. CSA members are found to be very sensitive to the time of food distribution, the price of products, and the location of CSA farms. Moreover, the impacts of perceived barriers of CSA participation and advertisement method vary based on respondents’ membership status. This paper sheds light on factors that influence various consumer groups and offers a more dynamic analysis of CSA consumer behavior. This analysis enhances understanding of CSA members’ preferences and could help CSA programs expand in the future and to better promote local food systems and sustainable agriculture.

Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) is one of the widely used direct marketing strategies for small- and midsized farmers. CSA programs are an important option for sustainable production and consumption. It helps growers generate income (improve financial security) and consumers obtain fresh local foods. Sustaining and growing CSA participation is critical in order to continue enjoying these benefits. We used a national online survey in conjunction with discrete choice models to investigate the impact of demographic characteristics, lifestyle preferences, and different information outlets on the probability that a consumer is or will become a CSA member. The results indicate that the factors affecting current and future CSA participation differ substantially. While none of the demographic characteristics has a significant impact on current CSA participation, some of them significantly affect the probability that a consumer will become a CSA member in the future. Lifestyle preferences have a significant impact on current and future CSA participation. Although none of the information outlets examined affect current CSA participation, word-of-mouth and online sources significantly influence the probability that a consumer will join a CSA program in the future. These findings may have important implications for policy makers’ and CSA farm managers’ efforts to sustain future CSA development.

Soil databases are very important for assessing ecosystem services at different administrative levels (e.g., state, region etc.). Soil databases provide information about numerous soil properties, including soil inorganic carbon (SIC), which is a naturally occurring liming material that regulates soil pH and performs other key functions related to all four recognized ecosystem services (e.g., provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services). However, the ecosystem services value, or “true value,” of SIC is not recognized in the current land market. In this case, a negative externality arises because SIC with a positive value has zero market price, resulting in the market failure and the inefficient use of land. One potential method to assess the value of SIC is by determining its replacement cost based on the price of commercial limestone that would be required to amend soil. The objective of this study is to assess SIC replacement cost value in the contiguous United States (U.S.) by depth (0–20, 20–100, 100–200 cm) and considering different spatial aggregation levels (i.e., state, region, land resource region (LRR) using the State Soil Geographic (STATSGO) soil database. A replacement cost value of SIC was determined based on an average price of limestone in 2014 ($10.42 per U.S. ton). Within the contiguous U.S., the total replacement cost value of SIC in the upper two meters of soil is between $2.16T (i.e., 2.16 trillion U.S. dollars, where T = trillion = 10¹²) and $8.97T. States with the highest midpoint total value of SIC were: (1) Texas ($1.84T), (2) New Mexico ($355B, that is, 355 billion U.S. dollars, where B = billion = 10⁹) and (3) Montana ($325B). When normalized by area, the states with the highest midpoint SIC values were: (1) Texas ($2.78 m⁻²), (2) Utah ($1.72 m⁻²) and (3) Minnesota ($1.35 m⁻²). The highest ranked regions for total SIC value were: (1) South Central ($1.95T), (2) West ($1.23T) and (3) Northern Plains ($1.01T), while the highest ranked regions based on area-normalized SIC value were: (1) South Central ($1.80 m⁻²), (2) Midwest ($0.82 m⁻²) and (3) West ($0.63 m⁻²). For land resource regions (LRR), the rankings were: (1) Western Range and Irrigated Region ($1.10T), (2) Central Great Plains Winter Wheat and Range Region ($926B) and (3) Central Feed Grains and Livestock Region ($635B) based on total SIC value, while the LRR rankings based on area-normalized SIC value were: (1) Southwest Plateaus and Plains Range and Cotton Region ($3.33 m⁻²), (2) Southwestern Prairies Cotton and Forage Region ($2.83 m⁻²) and (3) Central Great Plains Winter Wheat and Range Region ($1.59 m⁻²). Most of the SIC is located within the 100–200 cm depth interval with a midpoint replacement cost value of $2.49T and an area-normalized value of $0.34 m⁻². Results from this study provide a link between science-based estimates (e.g., soil order) of SIC replacement costs within the administrative boundaries (e.g., state, region etc.).

Atmospheric resources are very important for assessing ecosystem services at different administrative levels (e.g., state, region, etc.). Quantification of atmospheric calcium (Ca²⁺) deposition on the total basis provides incomplete information about the ecosystem services flows (both “natural” and “human-derived”), therefore lacking a systems approach to guide sustainable management of the flows which support many ecosystem services. This study assessed the value of wet, dry, and total atmospheric calcium deposition flows in the contiguous United States (U.S.) by different spatial aggregation levels (e.g., state, region) using information from the National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NRSP-3) and commodity prices of human-derived materials: agricultural limestone (CaCO₃) and uncalcined gypsum (CaSO₄•2H₂O). The total provisioning ecosystem value of atmospheric calcium deposition flows was $66.7M (i.e., 66.7 million U.S. dollars) ($30M wet + $36.7M dry) based on an average 2014 price of $10.42 per U.S. ton of agricultural limestone (CaCO₃) or nearly $364M ($164M wet + $200M dry) based on an average 2014 price of $33.00 per U.S. ton gypsum (CaSO₄•2H₂O). The quantified spatial distribution of wet, dry, and total atmospheric calcium deposition could be used to identify areas with opportunities for more efficient use of “human-derived” materials since they are already being supplied by atmospheric deposition.

Ecosystem services (ES) often rely on biogeochemical cycles, but values associated with abiotic services are often ignored or underestimated. Ecosystem services from atmospheric magnesium (Mg²⁺) deposition are abiotic flows (wet, dry, and total), which can be considered a source of naturally-occurring fertilizer and liming material, have not been included in economic valuations of ecosystem services. Market-based valuation of these atmospheric ecosystem service flows can partially address this negative externality. This study assessed the value of wet, dry, and total atmospheric magnesium deposition flows in the contiguous United States (USA) within boundary-based administrative accounts (e.g., state, region) based on data from the National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NRSP-3), and the market price of human-derived material (agricultural dolomite, CaMg(CO₃)₂). The total supporting ecosystem value of atmospheric magnesium deposition flows was $46.7M (i.e., 46.7 million U.S. dollars) ($18.5M wet + $28.2M dry) based on an average 2014 price of $12.90 per U.S. ton of agricultural dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂). The atmosphere is a common-pool resource that plays an important role in the pedosphere, providing important abiotic ES, but its monetary value is often not identified in the market due to a lack of information and/or knowledge of the proper valuation method. This study demonstrates one approach to translate atmospheric magnesium deposition flows entering the soil as an abiotic ES and potential monetary values at various scales. Omission of abiotic services in ES analysis can lead to an incomplete economic valuation.