Double Whammy: Psychopathologies that cannot be explained by simple genetic or environmental circumstances may sometimes result from complex interplay between multiple inputs. Giovanoli et al. (p. 1095 ) analyzed the interactions between prenatal and postnatal stressors in mice to see what synergies give rise to psychopathologies in the adult mice. The results suggest that susceptibilities arise when mice are exposed to prenatal infection and also exposed to stressors around puberty. Stressors delivered later in adolescence did not seem to produce the same susceptibility. Although the mechanisms that impose the delay between stressors and psychopathology remain obscure, the timing and sequence of the triggers hint at possible cellular causes.

Significance: Human IgM⁺IgD⁺CD27⁺B lymphocytes represent a large subpopulation of the human B-cell pool, but their generation is debated and their immunological functions are poorly understood. This work shows that these lymphocytes possess typical memory B-cell expression patterns, enabling them to differentiate rapidly into plasma cells upon restimulation. Moreover, we reveal unique features of these IgM memory B cells, their potential to reenter germinal center reactions, and their specific interaction with immunomodulatory neutrophils in early inflammatory responses. Thus, key characteristics and functions of a major human B-cell subset are elucidated.

Clinical and experimental evidence document that inflammation and increased peripheral cytokine levels are associated with depression-like symptoms and neuropsychological disturbances in humans. However, it remains unclear whether and to what extent cognitive functions like memory and attention are affected by and related to the dose of the inflammatory stimulus. Thus, in a cross-over, double-blind, experimental approach, healthy male volunteers were administered with either placebo or bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) at doses of 0.4 (n = 18) or 0.8 ng/kg of body weight (n = 16). Pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, norephinephrine and cortisol concentrations were analyzed before and 1, 1.75, 3, 4, 6, and 24 h after injection. In addition, changes in mood and anxiety levels were determined together with working memory (n-back task) and long term memory performance (recall of emotional and neutral pictures of the International Affective Picture System). Endotoxin administration caused a profound transient physiological response with dose-related elevations in body temperature and heart rate, increases in plasma interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra), salivary and plasma cortisol, and plasma norepinephrine. These changes were accompanied by dose-related decreased mood and increased anxiety levels. LPS administration did not affect accuracy in working memory performance but improved reaction time in the high-dose LPS condition compared to the control conditon. In contrast, long-term memory performance was impaired selectively for emotional stimuli after administration of the lower but not of the higher dose of LPS. These data suggest the existence of at least two counter-acting mechanisms, one promoting and one inhibiting cognitive performance during acute systemic inflammation.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with an enhanced risk for cardiovascular and other inflammatory diseases. Chronic low-level inflammation has been suggested as a potential mechanism linking these conditions. We investigated plasma cytokine levels as well as spontaneous and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated cytokine production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in a group of 35 severely traumatized PTSD patients compared to 25 healthy controls. Spontaneous production of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α by isolated PBMCs was significantly higher in the PTSD compared to the control group and even correlated with PTSD symptom severity within the PTSD group. In contrast, circulating plasma levels of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, TNF-α, or monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP)-1 were not significantly altered in PTSD patients compared to healthy controls. Our findings indicate that PBMCs of PTSD patients are already pre-activated in vivo, providing further evidence for low-grade inflammation in PTSD. This might possibly represent one psychobiological pathway from PTSD to poor physical health.