The prevalence of obesity continues to grow rapidly worldwide, posing many public health challenges of the 21st century. Obese subjects are at major risk for serious diet-related noncommunicable diseases, including type 2 diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Understanding the mechanisms underlying obesity pathogenesis is needed for the development of effective treatment strategies. Dysregulation of incretin secretion and actions has been observed in obesity and related metabolic disorders; therefore, incretin-based therapies have been developed to provide new therapeutic options. Incretin mimetics present glucose-lowering properties, together with a reduction of appetite and food intake, resulting in weight loss. In this review, we describe the physiology of two known incretins—glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), and their role in obesity and related cardiometabolic disorders. We also focus on the available and incoming incretin-based medications that can be used in the treatment of the above-mentioned conditions.

Protein is a fundamental macronutrient in the human diet. It supplies our organisms with essential amino acids, which are needed for the growth and maintenance of cells and tissues. Conventional protein sources, despite their complete amino acid profiles and excellent digestibility, have a proven negative impact on the environment. Furthermore, their production poses many ethical challenges. This review aims to present nutritional, more ethical, and environmentally friendly alternatives that could serve as potential protein sources for the population. The available literature on alternative protein sources has been analyzed. Based on the research conducted, various products have been identified and described, including plant-based protein sources such as soybeans, peas, faba beans, lupins, and hemp seeds; aquatic sources such as algae, microalgae, and water lentils; as well as insect-based and microbial protein sources, and cell-cultured meat. Despite numerous advantages, such as a lower environmental impact, higher ethical standards of production, and beneficial nutritional profiles, alternative protein sources are not without limitations. These include lower bioavailability of certain amino acids, the presence of antinutritional compounds, technological challenges, and issues related to consumer acceptance. Nevertheless, with proper dietary composition, optimization of production processes, and further technological advancements, presented alternatives can constitute valuable and sustainable protein sources for the growing global population.

Dynamic changes in body composition which occur during weight loss may have an influential role on subsequent energy balance behaviors and weight. The aim of this article is to consider the effect of proportionate changes in body composition during weight loss on subsequent changes in appetite and weight outcomes at 26 wk in individuals engaged in a weight loss maintenance intervention. A subgroup of the Diet, Obesity, and Genes (DiOGenes) study (n = 209) was recruited from 3 European countries. Participants underwent an 8-wk low-calorie diet (LCD) resulting in ≥8% body weight loss, during which changes in body composition (by DXA) and appetite (by visual analog scale appetite perceptions in response to a fixed test meal) were measured. Participants were randomly assigned into 5 weight loss maintenance diets based on protein and glycemic index content and followed up for 26 wk. We investigated associations between proportionate fat-free mass (FFM) loss (%FFML) during weight loss and 1) weight outcomes at 26 wk and 2) changes in appetite perceptions. During the LCD, participants lost a mean ± SD of 11.2 ± 3.5 kg, of which 30.4% was FFM. After adjustment, there was a tendency for %FFML to predict weight regain in the whole group (β: 0.041; 95% CI: -0.001, 0.08; P = 0.055), which was significant in men (β: 0.09; 95% CI: 0.02, 0.15; P = 0.009) but not women (β: 0.01; 95% CI: -0.04, 0.07; P = 0.69). Associations between %FFML and change in appetite perceptions during weight loss were inconsistent. The strongest observations were in men for hunger (r = 0.69, P = 0.002) and desire to eat (r = 0.61, P = 0.009), with some tendencies in the whole group and no associations in women. Our results suggest that composition of weight loss may have functional importance for energy balance regulation, with greater losses of FFM potentially being associated with increased weight regain and appetite. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00390637.

Metabolic syndrome (MetS), a significant global health concern, is characterized as a cluster of metabolic abnormalities that elevate the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Adiponectin, an adipokine secreted by adipose tissue, plays a crucial role in regulating glucose and lipid homeostasis while exhibiting protective effects against vascular alterations. Single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) in the ADIPOQ gene have significantly affected circulating adiponectin levels and metabolic parameters. This narrative review examines current evidence on the relationship between adiponectin, ADIPOQ gene variants, and metabolic syndrome. The findings indicate that lower adiponectin levels are associated with an increased risk of metabolic syndrome components, including elevated triglycerides (TGs), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and fasting glucose levels. In conclusion, adiponectin emerges as a key regulator of metabolic homeostasis, with SNVs in the ADIPOQ gene correlating with the development of metabolic-related complications.

Introduction: The planetary health diet, introduced by the EAT–Lancet Commission, aims to address global health and sustainability challenges by promoting a plant-based diet with reduced consumption of animal-sourced foods. This diet not only contributes to environmental sustainability but also offers significant health benefits, including prevention and management of abdominal obesity, carbohydrate metabolism disorders, dyslipidemia, and elevated blood pressure. These metabolic disorders are components of metabolic syndrome, a cluster of risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Objectives: This narrative review aims to gather the most recent findings on the impact of the planetary diet on individual components of metabolic syndrome and on the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease. Methods: The available research on the topic was identified via searches in PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar. Results: Abdominal obesity, a major risk factor for a range of chronic diseases, can be effectively mitigated by adhering to plant-based dietary patterns, which have been shown to reduce waist circumference and improve overall cardiometabolic health. Furthermore, the planetary diet plays a crucial role in reducing the risk of type-2 diabetes and improving glycemic control, with specific dietary components such as whole grains and fiber, demonstrating positive effects on blood glucose levels. This diet is additionally associated with favorable lipid profiles, including lower levels of LDL cholesterol and total cholesterol, which are critical in the prevention of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases. Conclusions: These multiple benefits highlight that the planetary diet may be an effective strategy for managing and preventing metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease. However, further research is needed to confirm its long-term efficacy and applicability across diverse populations.