Neutrophils are one of the first cells to arrive at the site of infection, where they apply several strategies to kill pathogens: degranulation, respiratory burst, phagocytosis, and release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). Antibiotics have an immunomodulating effect, and they can influence the properties of numerous immune cells, including neutrophils. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of azithromycin and chloramphenicol on degranulation, apoptosis, respiratory burst, and the release of NETs by neutrophils. Neutrophils were isolated from healthy donors by density-gradient centrifugation method and incubated for 1 h with the studied antibiotics at different concentrations (0.5, 10 and 50 μg/mL—azithromycin and 10 and 50 μg/mL—chloramphenicol). Next, NET release was induced by a 3 h incubation with 100 nM phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA). Amount of extracellular DNA was quantified by fluorometry, and NETs were visualized by immunofluorescent microscopy. Degranulation, apoptosis and respiratory burst were assessed by flow cytometry. We found that pretreatment of neutrophils with azithromycin and chloramphenicol decreases the release of NETs. Moreover, azithromycin showed a concentration-dependent effect on respiratory burst in neutrophils. Chloramphenicol did not affect degranulation, apoptosis nor respiratory burst. It can be concluded that antibiotics modulate the ability of neutrophils to release NETs influencing human innate immunity.

Macrophages are essential components of the immune system and play a role in the normal functioning of the cardiovascular system. Depending on their origin and phenotype, cardiac macrophages perform various functions. In a steady-state, these cells play a beneficial role in maintaining cardiac homeostasis by defending the body from pathogens and eliminating apoptotic cells, participating in electrical conduction, vessel patrolling, and arterial tone regulation. However, macrophages also take part in adverse cardiac remodeling that could lead to the development and progression of heart failure (HF) in such HF comorbidities as hypertension, obesity, diabetes, and myocardial infarction. Nevertheless, studies on detailed mechanisms of cardiac macrophage function are still in progress, and could enable potential therapeutic applications of these cells. This review aims to present the latest reports on the origin, heterogeneity, and functions of cardiac macrophages in the healthy heart and in cardiovascular diseases leading to HF. The potential therapeutic use of macrophages is also briefly discussed.

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are threads of nuclear DNA complexed with antimicrobial proteins released by neutrophils to extracellular matrix to bind, immobilise, and kill different pathogens. NET formation is triggered by different physiological and non-physiological stimulants. It is also suggested that antibiotics could be non-physiological compounds that influence NET release. The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of clindamycin and amoxicillin on NET release and the phagocyte function of neutrophils. Neutrophils isolated from healthy donors by density centrifugation method were incubated with amoxicillin or clindamycin for two hours, and then NET release was stimulated with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA). After three hours of incubation with PMA NETs were quantified as amount of extracellular DNA by fluorometry and visualised by immunofluorescent microscopy. The percent of phagocyting cells was measured by flow cytometry. We showed that amoxicillin induces NET formation (increase of extracellular DNA fluorescence, p = 0.03), while clindamycin had no influence on NET release (p > 0.05), as confirmed by quantitative measurement and fluorescent microscopy. Regarding phagocyte function, both antibiotics increased bacterial uptake (43.3% and 61.6% median increase for amoxicillin and clindamycin, respectively). We concluded that the ability of antibiotics to modulate NET release depends on the antibiotic used and is not associated with their ability to influence phagocytosis.

Cardiac macrophages are known from various activities, therefore we presume that microRNAs (miRNAs) produced or released by macrophages in cardiac tissue have impact on myocardial remodeling in individuals with metabolic syndrome (MetS). We aim to assess the cardiac macrophage miRNA profile by selecting those miRNA molecules that potentially exhibit regulatory functions in MetS-related cardiac remodeling. Cardiac tissue macrophages from control and db/db mice (an animal model of MetS) were counted and sorted with flow cytometry, which yielded two populations: CD45⁺CD11b⁺CD64⁺Ly6C^hi and CD45⁺CD11b⁺CD64⁺Ly6C^low. Total RNA was then isolated, and miRNA expression profiles were evaluated with Next Generation Sequencing. We successfully sequenced 1400 miRNAs in both macrophage populations: CD45⁺CD11b⁺CD64⁺Ly6C^hi and CD45⁺CD11b⁺CD64⁺Ly6C^low. Among the 1400 miRNAs, about 150 showed different expression levels in control and db/db mice and between these two subpopulations. At least 15 miRNAs are possibly associated with MetS pathology in cardiac tissue due to direct or indirect regulation of the expression of miRNAs for proteins involved in angiogenesis, fibrosis, or inflammation. In this paper, for the first time we describe the miRNA transcription profile in two distinct macrophage populations in MetS-affected cardiac tissue. Although the results are preliminary, the presented data provide a foundation for further studies on intercellular cross-talk/molecular mechanism(s) involved in the regulation of MetS-related cardiac remodeling.