The Neolithic Revolution narrative associates early-mid Holocene domestications with the development of agriculture that fueled the rise of late Holocene civilizations. This narrative continues to be influential, even though it has been deconstructed by archaeologists and geneticists in its homeland. To further disentangle domestication from reliance on food production systems, such as agriculture, we revisit definitions of domestication and food production systems, review the late Pleistocene–early Holocene archaeobotanical record, and quantify the use, management and domestication of Neotropical plants to provide insights about the past. Neotropical plant domestication relies on common human behaviors (selection, accumulation and caring) within agroecological systems that focus on individual plants, rather than populations—as is typical of agriculture. The early archaeobotanical record includes numerous perennial and annual species, many of which later became domesticated. Some of this evidence identifies dispersal with probable cultivation, suggesting incipient domestication by 10,000 years ago. Since the Pleistocene, more than 6500, 1206 and 6261 native plant species have been used in Mesoamerica, the Central Andes and lowland South America, respectively. At least 1555, 428 and 742 are managed outside and inside food production systems, and at least 1148, 428 and 600 are cultivated, respectively, suggesting at least incipient domestication. Full native domesticates are more numerous in Mesoamerica (251) than the Andes (124) and the lowlands (45). This synthesis reveals that domestication is more common in the Neotropics than previously recognized and started much earlier than reliance on food production systems. Hundreds of ethnic groups had, and some still have, alternative strategies that do involve domestication, although they do not rely principally on food production systems, such as agriculture.

Background: Historically, the Andean people have experienced uncertainty in terms of the availability of food resources because of climatic and ecological variations that are typical of mountainous environments. Risk management strategies, including the diversified and complementary use and management of species and ecosystems at different elevations, have faced such uncertainty. The current effects of climate change on food security motivate studies on subsistence adaptative strategies. TEK offers extraordinary experience and local biocultural memory to meet present and future needs. From an ethnoecological perspective, we aim to identify the variety of local foods in Andean communities, their cultural and nutritional value for local people, their use frequencies, and their forms to obtain them from different environments, productive systems, and interchanges. We expected to identify traditional Andean diversified subsistence patterns despite the pressure of modern food and interchange systems. Methods: This study was conducted in two communities in the highlands of the Department of Huánuco, Peru. We conducted 24 semistructured interviews with households sampled through the snowball method. We asked about their daily life food, plant and animal components of diet, frequencies and seasons in which they are consumed, and ways to obtain them. We complemented the information through ethnobotanical collection of wild, weedy, and ruderal edible plants and records on domestic and wild animals included in the diet. Results: We recorded 37 crop species, 13 domestic animals, 151 wild, weedy, and ruderal food plant species, the 3 most commonly consumed wild animals, and 52 processed products obtained from local stores and markets. The main crops are potato and maize, while the main domestic animals included in the diet are cattle, pigs, and sheep. Rice, pasta, and bread are the main raw and processed foods included in the diet. Crops represent nearly half of the food consumed and purchased (in kg/year), and tubers and cereals provide most of the kilocalories, carbohydrates and proteins. Wild, weedy, and ruderal plants are consumed in relatively low amounts and at relatively low frequencies per species, but overall, they constitute a significant proportion of the kg of annually consumed food (14.4% in Cani and 9.6% in Monte Azul). Knowledge and use of these resources play a key role in local cuisine and nutrition. Conclusion: The current food patterns studied are based on diverse diets, including multiple feedstuffs, sources, and practices to obtain them, which reflects the traditional Andean subsistence pattern. The increasing adoption of processed food has influenced the declining consumption of local food, mainly among young people. Communication and policies to promote local food, emphasizing the role of wild plants and their adequate consumption, and provide information on their nutritional value are recommended to support efforts toward food sovereignty and conservation of Andean biocultural diversity.

Antecedentes: Es importante entender las prácticas agrícolas y los criterios de selección que moldean la diversidad de variedades locales en plantas domesticadas. La región andina comparte con la región mesoamericana y Norteamérica los centros de origen de las cinco especies domesticadas de Cucurbita . Sin embargo, los estudios sobre diversidad biológica de estas especies son escasos en Perú en comparación con México. Preguntas: ¿Cuáles son las variedades locales de Cucurbita que reconocen, promueven y conservan los agricultores en el Distrito de Tomayquichua? ¿Qué mecanismos promueven la diversidad de estas variedades? Especies estudiadas: Cucurbita ficifolia Bouché, Cucurbita moschata Duchesne, Cucurbita maxima Duchesne. Sitio y año de estudio: Tomayquichua, Huánuco, Perú (junio de 2018 y 2019). Métodos: Se realizaron entrevistas semiestructuradas a 29 familias de agricultores y comerciantes para evaluar la diversidad de variedades locales y las prácticas de manejo de las especies del género Cucurbita . Resultados: C. ficifolia es la cucurbitácea más diversa en Tomayquichua (13 variedades) seguido de C. moschata (10 variedades), las cuales se siembran en chacras y traspatios. Se reportan siete variedades de C. maxima , con el uso predominante de una variedad comercial en cultivos intensivos. Conclusión: Las prácticas agrícolas tradicionales parecen mantener la diversidad local de C. ficifolia y C. moschata . Las variedades locales de C. maxima en Tomayquichua parecen ser desplazadas progresivamente por una variedad mejorada destinada a aumentar la producción mediante prácticas agrícolas intensivas. La alta diversidad biológica de C. ficifolia en Perú sugiere un origen andino, pero se requieren estudios genéticos adicionales para aclararlo.