Dyslexia is a literacy disorder affecting the efficient acquisition of reading and writing skills. The disorder is neurobiological in origin. Due to its developmental nature, longitudinal studies of dyslexia are of essence. They are, however, relatively scarce. The present study took a longitudinal approach to cortical connectivity of brain imaging data in reading tasks in children with dyslexia and children with typical reading development. The participants were followed with repeated measurements through Pre-literacy (6 years old), Emergent Literacy (8 years old) and Literacy (12 years old) stages, using Dynamic Causal Modelling (DCM) when analysing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data. Even though there are a few longitudinal studies on effective connectivity in typical reading, to our knowledge, no studies have previously investigated these issues in relation to dyslexia. We set up a model of a brain reading network involving five cortical regions (inferior frontal gyrus, precentral gyrus, superior temporal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, and occipito-temporal cortex). Using DCM, connectivity measures were calculated for each connection in the model. These measures were further analysed using factorial ANOVA. The results showed that the difference between groups centred on connections going to and from the inferior frontal gyrus (two connections) and the occipito-temporal cortex (three connections). For all five connections, the typical group showed stable or decreasing connectivity measures. The dyslexia group, on the other hand, showed a marked up-regulation (occipito-temporal connections) or down-regulation (inferior frontal gyrus connections) from 6 years to 8 years, followed by normalization from 8 years to 12 years. We interpret this as a delay in the dyslexia group in developing into the Pre-literacy and Emergent literacy stages. This delay could possibly be detrimental to literacy development. By age 12, there was no statistically significant difference in connectivity between the groups, but differences in literacy skills were still present, and were in fact larger than when measured at younger ages.

Language and literacy skills are essential for education, school achievements, work and social conditions. Some studies indicate an elevated incidence of problems with language and literacy in the prison population, potentially contributing to increased risks of maladjustment and recidivism. In general, the bulk of research on language and literacy has been directed towards children and adolescents. This study aimed to map the extent of the literature on language and literacy disorders in the adult prison population over the past 20 years, and what it reveals about the prevalence and nature of these disorders in prisoners. In total, 18 studies were identified. Of these, the majority (15) investigated literacy. The three studies investigating language all reported an elevated prevalence in the population. The literacy studies were altogether less clear, due to differences in theoretical approach and methods. In terms of the nature of the disorders, many studies assessed the behavioral level only. Results are discussed in terms of theoretical approaches, as well as recommendations for research, assessment, and intervention.

Introduction: There are strong indications of an elevated incidence of both language problems and problems with mental health among prisoners. We also know that women in prison are a particularly vulnerable group who often face conditions that foremost accommodate the needs of men. In order to adapt prison conditions to women’s needs and give better help, we need more information about their characteristics. In this study, we wanted to explore associations between oral language problems and mental health (depression and anxiety) in women in prison.Method: Participants were 58 women, recruited from high and low security women’s and mixed prisons. They completed a questionnaire covering demographic variables and several self-report measures. In the present study, the language measures were a Language Composite score (comprising articulation, impressive and expressive language, and pragmatics) and the La Trobe Communication Questionnaire (LCQ), measuring pragmatic skills specifically. Hopkins Symptom Checklist-10 (HSCL) was used as a measure of psychological distress. First, we assessed correlations between the language measures and mental health. Second, we performed group comparisons with groups defined as over or under cut-off on the Language Composite, LCQ total, and HSCL total scores.Results: Results supported a clear connection between overall language and overall mental health. Pragmatic skills were the main driver of this effect. There was no difference in mental health between those scoring above and below cut-off for general language problems but the group with possible pragmatic impairment showed poorer mental health than those without. Conversely, there was no difference in general language skills between the groups scoring within and outside the range of psychological distress, but the first group evaluated their pragmatic skills as significantly poorer than the latter.Discussion: We conclude that pragmatics seem to be core to the association between oral language skills and mental health among female prisoners. This should have implications for language services in prisons, as attending to these issues could positively affect prognosis and outcome.