Avian trichomonosis is a world-wide parasitic disease caused by the protozoan Trichomonas gallinae. Although several degrees of pathogenicity have been described on the basis of the clinical signs in birds, there are few reports concerning the genetic characterization of the parasite and its relationship with pathogenicity. The parasite usually appears apathogenic but is occasionally responsible for outbreaks of the disease in avian populations, particularly affecting nestlings of ornithophagous raptors. For 3 years, cultures of oropharingeal samples from 612 wild and domestic pigeons (Columba livia) and 102 birds of prey from 15 different species were made in an attempt to determine the prevalence of T. gallinae in the Valencian Community (eastern Spain). To establish the genotype of the isolates, 5.8S rRNA and the surrounding internal transcribed spacer regions were amplified by polymerase chain reaction and were sequenced. After restriction map analysis, sequencing and polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism using HaeIII showed two genotypes (A and B) in isolates from both groups of birds, although genotype prevalence differed in each group-genotype A being more prevalent in columbiforms and genotype B in raptors. In addition, genotype B was present in every bird that displayed macroscopic lesions.

Honeybee populations have locally and temporally declined in the last few years because of both biotic and abiotic factors. Among the latter, one of the most important reasons is infection by the microsporidia Nosema ceranae, which is the etiological agent of type C nosemosis. This species was first described in Asian honeybees (Apis cerana). Nowadays, domestic honeybees (Apis mellifera) worldwide are also becoming infected due to globalization. Type C nosemosis can be asymptomatic or can cause important damage to bees, such as changes in temporal polyethism, energy and oxidative stress, immunity loss, and decreased average life expectancy. It causes drastic reductions in workers, numbers of broods, and honey production, finally leading to colony loss. Common treatment is based on fumagillin, an antibiotic with side effects and relatively poor efficiency, which is banned in the European Union. Natural products, probiotics, food supplements, nutraceuticals, and other veterinary drugs are currently under study and might represent alternative treatments. Prophylaxis and management of affected colonies are essential to control the disease. While N. ceranae is one potential cause of bee losses in a colony, other factors must also be considered, especially synergies between microsporidia and the use of insecticides.