High food quality, together with adequate macro- and micronutrient intake in pregnancy, is crucial for the health status of the mother and child. Recent findings suggest that it could also be beneficial or harmful in the context of the well-being of the whole future population. According to the developmental origins of health and disease hypothesis, most conditions that occur in adulthood originate in foetal life. Moreover, some epigenetic events, modified inter alia by diet, impact more than one generation. Still, the recommendations in most countries are neither popularised nor very detailed. While it seems to be important to direct diet trends towards a healthier lifestyle, the methods of preventing specific disorders like diabetes or asthma are not yet established and require further investigation.

The goal of this review was to evaluate the association of β2-adrenergic receptor ( ADRB2 ) gene polymorphisms with asthma and obesity. Asthma is the most common pediatric inflammatory disorder. The prevalence, severity, and hospitalization index for asthma have increased markedly in the last several decades. Interestingly, asthma is often diagnosed along with obesity. Genetic factors are essential for both conditions, and some of the candidate pleiotropic genes thought to be involved in the development of these diseases are ADRB2 , vitamin D receptor ( VDR ), leptin ( LEP ), protein kinase C alpha ( PRKCA ), and tumor necrosis factor alpha ( TNFα ). The ADRB2 has been studied in multiple populations and more than 80 polymorphisms, mainly single-nucleotide polymorphisms, have been identified. For nonsynonymous Arg16Gly, Gln27Glu, and Thr164Ile, functional effects have been shown. In vivo , these polymorphisms have been evaluated to determine their association with both obesity and asthma, but the results are inconsistent and depend on the population studied or how the disease was defined. Currently, there are only few reports describing the genetic background for the comorbidity of asthma and obesity.

The increase in the prevalence of allergic diseases is believed to partially depend on environmental changes. DNA methylation is a major epigenetic mechanism, which is known to respond to environmental factors. A number of studies have revealed that patterns of DNA methylation may potentially predict allergic diseases. Here, we examined how maternal atopy is associated with methylation patterns in the cord blood of neonates. We conducted an epigenome-wide association study in a cohort of 96 mother-child pairs. Pregnant women aged not more than 35 years old, not currently smoking or exposed to environmental tobacco smoke, who did not report obesity before conception were considered eligible. They were further tested for atopy. Converted DNA from cord blood was analysed using Infinium MethylationEPIC; for statistical analysis, RnBeads software was applied. Gestational age and sex were included as covariates in the final analysis. 83 DM sites were associated with maternal atopy. Within the top DM sites, there were CpG sites which mapped to genes SCD, ITM2C, NT5C3A and NPEPL1. Regional analysis revealed 25 tiling regions, 4 genes, 3 CpG islands and 5 gene promoters, (including PIGCP1, ADAM3A, ZSCAN12P1) associated with maternal atopy. Gene content analysis revealed pointwise enrichments in pathways related to purine-containing compound metabolism, the G1/S transition of the mitotic cell cycle, stem cell division and cellular glucose homoeostasis. These findings suggest that maternal atopy provides a unique intrauterine environment that may constitute the first environment in which exposure is associated with methylation patterns in newborn.

Breastfeeding (BF) is the most natural mode of nutrition. Its beneficial effect has been revealed in terms of both the neonatal period and those of lifelong effects. However, as for protection against allergy, there is not enough data. In the current narrative review, the literature within the last five years from clinical trials and population-based studies on breastfeeding and allergy from different aspects was explored. The aim of this review was to explain how different factors could contribute to the overall effect of BF. Special consideration was given to accompanying exposure to cow milk, supplement use, the introduction of solid foods, microbiota changes, and the epigenetic function of BF. Those factors seem to be modifying the impact of BF. We also identified studies regarding BF in atopic mothers, with SCFA as a main player explaining differences according to this status. Conclusion: Based on the population-based studies, breastfeeding could be protective against some allergic phenotypes, but the results differ within different study groups. According to the new research in that matter, the effect of BF could be modified by different genetic (HMO composition), environmental (cesarean section, allergen exposure), dietary (SCFA, introduction of solid food), and immunologic factors (IgG, IgE), thus partially explaining the variance.

Interleukin 4 (IL-4) and its receptor play important roles in the pathologies of asthma and atopy. The alpha subunit of the IL-4 receptor (IL-4RA) is included in 2 types of receptors which have different modulatory effects on immune responses. This distinct pattern reflects involvement in the immunopathology of both asthma and atopy. A number of studies have proven the association between IL4RA gene polymorphisms and asthma and atopy, but it is still an open question whether these variants are functional. To analyze the data from IL4RA gene expression in PBMC in relation to specific polymorphisms - the most frequently studied I50V and Q551R and the less known C-3223T. The analysis was performed for 36 subjects, both atopic and non-atopic. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used with specific primers for the quantification and genotyping. Delta Ct (ΔCT) and delta-delta Ct (ΔΔCT) values were used for the relative quantification of IL4RA expression in PBMC. We observed no significant differences in the IL4RA expression profile between the 3 genotypes. A trend toward higher relative expression was observed for homozygous minor I50V and C-3223T genotypes. We did not find a statistically significant relationship between the genetic polymorphisms and the relative expression of IL4RA. The effect of genetic polymorphism on IL4RA mRNA expression could interfere with other factors, such as environmental stimuli, and should be evaluated in future studies.

Background: Worldwide, allergy affects more than one billion people, with particularly rising prevalence in industrialised areas. Specifically, young adults appear to be predominantly targeted for an allergy diagnosis. Allergic diseases in pregnancy are mainly pre-existing but could also occur de novo. The immunological changes while pregnant, with increased Th2 lymphocyte activity, can facilitate allergen sensitisation. Objective: The aim of this study was to evaluate the pattern of specific IgE (sIgE) sensitisation to common inhalant and food allergens in pregnancy, and assess its relationship to self-reported allergic disease. Methods: We assessed 200 pregnant women, aged 20–38 years (mean age = 29 years), participant of ELMA (Epigenetic Hallmark of Maternal Atopy and Diet) study, living in a metropolitan area, with no pregnancy associated metabolic complications, for total IgE and allergen specific IgE to 20 allergens. Results: 48% of pregnant women were sensitised to at least one allergen, at a cut-off point of 0.35 kU/L and they were assigned as atopic. However 42% in atopic group were not reporting any allergic disease. The most common inhalant allergens were: pollen (24.5%) and animal dander (23.5%). The most common food allergens were: cow’s milk (5.5%) and apples (4.5%). 7.5% of women reported asthma, 21.5% allergic rhinitis, 11.5% atopic dermatitis and 18.5% food allergy. 8.5% of were taking medication for asthma or allergies. Atopic dermatitis had the highest tendency to become more severe during pregnancy. Total IgE values were significantly higher in atopic women. Conclusions: Allergic sensitisation is a common phenomenon in pregnancy. Some sensitisations could be asymptomatic. Further studies should investigate if sensitisation in mothers confers risks for immune alterations in their children.