Ecosystem functioning is dependent a lot on large mammals, which are, however, vulnerable and facing extinction risks due to human impacts mainly. Megafauna of Asia has been declining for a long, not only in numbers but also in their distribution ranges. In the current study, we collected information on past and current occurrence and distribution records of Asia’s megafauna species. We reconstructed the historical distribution ranges of the six herbivores and four carnivores for comparison with their present ranges, to quantify spatially explicit levels of mega-defaunation. Results revealed that historically the selected megafauna species were more widely distributed than at current. Severe range contraction was observed for the Asiatic lion, three rhino species, Asian elephant, tigers, and tapirs. Defaunation maps generated have revealed the vanishing of megafauna from parts of the East, Southeast, and Southwest Asia, even some protected Areas losing up to eight out of ten megafaunal species. These defaunation maps can help develop future conservation policies, to save the remaining distribution ranges of large mammals.

Baseline knowledge of distribution and abundance of a species whose population is facing decline throughout its distribution range is vital for its conservation planning. Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) is such a species which is Imperiled and lacking key biological studies in northern locale of Pakistan. We investigated distribution, abundance and threats faced by Indian pangolin in Pir Lasura National Park, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Indian pangolin has patchy distribution in and around the Park ranging from 590m-1540m elevation. A very low population (0.77±0.34 individuals/km2) of Indian pangolin were recorded from the Park. Local perception towards Indian pangolin was to a great extent negative. Slaughtering record of 446 pangolins were gathered. We recovered 12 dead pangolins, 10 jackets of scales. Furthermore, selling of 26 kg scales, 111 live pangolin captures and 313 killings were reported during 2013-2015. Local hunters were mainly involved in capturing and killing of Indian pangolin 90%, local farmers 8% (n=22) and labor 1%. We propose more studies ought to be led to improve comprehension of species and mindfulness instruction programs both by government and private sectors, to taught local communities living in and around Pir Lasura National Park for getting support for the species and to change their demeanors.

Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia) is native to mountain ranges of Central and South Asia, where it occurs from 3,000–4500 m elevation. The species is enlisted as “Endangered” by IUCN and its populations are reportedly declining. In the current study, we compared the past and current distribution ranges of the species using spatial analysis. We used Quantum Geographical Information System (QGIS) software to reconstruct and quantify its past distribution range and compare with its current one. Snow leopard was found more widely distributed in the past having a distribution range of approximately 10.47 million km² against the current 3.20 million km². Range contraction of the species approximates 69%. A total of 719 terrestrial protected areas of Asia (out of total 7209) had this species in the past whereas at current, only 311 protected areas support this species. The results emphasize escalating conservation efforts to save its remaining distribution range.

Scats are often used to study ecological parameters of carnivore species. However, field identification of carnivore scats, based on their morphological characteristics, becomes difficult if many carnivore species are distributed in the same area. We assessed error rates in morphological identification of five sympatric carnivores’ scats in north-eastern Himalayan region of Pakistan during 2013–2017. A sample of 149 scats were subjected to molecular identification using fecal DNA. We used a confusion matrix to assess different types of errors associated with carnivore scat identification. We were able to amplify DNA from 96.6% (n = 144) of scats. Based on field identification of carnivore scats, we had predicted that out of 144 scats: 11 (7.6%) scats were from common leopard, 38 (26.4%) from red fox, 29 (20.1%) from Asiatic jackal, 37 (25.7%) from yellow throated martin, 14 (9.7%) from Asian palm civet and 15 (10.4%) from small Indian civet. However, molecular identification revealed and confirmed nine were scats (6.24%) from common leopard, 40 (27.8 %) from red fox, 21 (14.6%) from Asiatic jackal, 45 (31.25%) from Asian palm civet, 12 (8.3%) scats from small Indian civet, while 11 scats (7.6%) were found from Canis lupus Spp., three (2%) from dog, one (0.7 %) scat sample from porcupine, and two (1.4%) from rhesus monkey. Misidentification rate was highest for Asian palm civet (25.7%), followed by red fox (11.1%) and Asiatic jackal (9.7%) but least for common leopard scats (4.2%). The results specific to our study area concur with previous studies that have recommended that carnivore monitoring programs utilize molecular identification of predator scats. Using only morphological identification of scats can be misleading and may result in wrong management decisions.

Conservation of large carnivores in protected areas with high human use or habitation is challenging due to ecological, political and socioeconomic factors. Understanding underlying patterns of human–carnivore interactions is vital for their conservation. We investigated patterns and costs of livestock depredations by common leopards Panthera pardus in and near Pir Lasura National Park, Pakistan, using standardized questionnaires to collect data from 133 respondents during 2014–2015. Respondents lost 209 animals to leopard attacks, primarily goats (78.5%), followed by dogs (11%). Most leopard depredations of livestock occurred during the day, with almost 60% occurring during 9:00–11:00 h and 14:00–16:00 h. Greatest numbers of livestock killed was during May–July (60.9%) followed by December (9%). Most attacks occurred when livestock were not guarded (48.9%) and fewest when guarded by humans and dogs (2.3%). Most livestock depredations occurred in larger herds of ≥ 20 animals (58%). Respondent's perceptions of leopards were negative, with most (79.7%) stating their unwillingness to conserve leopards. Eight leopards were reportedly killed in retaliation to livestock. Livestock depredations by leopards represented almost 9% of the annual income of respondents. Our study provides several insights to mitigate human leopard conflict including use of humans and dogs to guard livestock during times of peak vulnerability (e.g. late morning and during summer, May–July). Further, improved corrals could reduce access to livestock by leopards and local communities should be aware of more effective corral designs. Reducing livestock depredations and corresponding economic losses could improve perceptions of local communities and promote tolerance towards leopards, reducing retaliatory killing and facilitating coexistence.