Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a highly infectious disease of sheep and goats that is caused by PPR virus, a member of the genus Morbillivirus that includes the viruses that cause rinderpest (RP) in cattle. RP was the first animal disease to be globally eradicated in 2011 and is only the second disease, after smallpox, to have ever been eradicated. PPR is one of the principal constraints to small ruminant production in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. The epidemiology of PPR and RP as well as the technologies available for their diagnosis and control are similar. The conditions that favored the eradication of RP are also largely present for PPR. In this work, we outline the evolving strategy for eradication in light of current opportunities and challenges, as well as the lessons from other eradication programs in animal and human health. The global PPR situation and technology for its control are summarized. A strategy based on the lessons from previous eradication efforts that integrate epidemiology, social science, and economics as tools to target and motivate vaccination is summarized. Major aspects of the cost and benefit-cost analysis of the indicated program are presented. The overall undiscounted cost of eradication was estimated as $3.1 billion, and the benefit-cost ratio for the most likely scenario was estimated at 33.8. We close with a discussion of the possible next steps.

Vaccination against highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses, along with other measures, was successful in eradicating AI in very few countries where the competence of national veterinary services or the geography and bird density have contributed favorably to the outcome. The main constraints to an effective AI vaccination are vaccine composition matching field strains, reliable cold chain and logistics to target all poultry smallholders, constraints related to the availability of sufficient financial and human resources. When not conducted properly, vaccination can also contribute to the emergence of new field viral strains, through genetic drifts of HPAI viruses. While new technologies have improved the possibility to produce high quality vaccines matching field strains, recurrent issues like post-vaccination field surveillance and vaccination coverage continue to limit the relevance of AI vaccination in smallholder settings. A “game-changer” vaccine targeting smallholders should be universal to protect against all field viral strains and reduce significantly, if not totally eliminate, the need for costly post-vaccination surveillance. The ease of administration of this vaccine (eye drop or one single injection) would further contribute to its relevance in the field. These characteristics are considered essential for the product profile of an AI vaccine that can contribute in a meaningful way to the livelihoods of poultry smallholders.

Background:Livestock mortality impacts farmer livelihoods and household nutrition. Capturing trends in livestock mortality at localised or national levels is essential to planning, monitoring and evaluating interventions and programs aimed at decreasing mortality rates. However, livestock mortality data is disparate, and indicators used have not been standardised. This review aims to assess livestock mortality indicator definitions reported in literature, and define the ages where mortality has greatest impact. Methods:A systematic review was conducted, limited to articles focussed on mortality of cattle, sheep and goats. Peer-reviewed articles in Web of Science until year 2020 were assessed for inclusion of age-based definitions for mortality indicators and data on age distribution of mortality. Indicator definitions for each species were collated and similar terms and age groups most targeted were compared. The cumulative distribution of age at mortality was compared across studies graphically where possible; otherwise, age patterns for mortality were collated. Results:Most studies reported mortality risk rather than rate, and there was little agreement between indicator definitions used in the literature. The most common indicators reported were perinatal and neonatal mortality in cattle, and for perinatal, neonatal and pre-weaning mortality indicators for sheep and goats. Direct comparison of age distribution of mortality was only possible for cattle, which found that approximately 80% of all mortalities within the first 12 months had occurred by six months of age. A significant finding of the study is the variation in age groups for which mortality is reported, which impedes the comparison of mortality risk across studies, particularly for sheep and goats. Conclusions:This study demonstrates the importance and value of standardising mortality risk indicators for general use, including a young stock mortality risk indicator measuring mortality in the highest risk period of birth to six months of age in cattle, sheep and goats.

Breeding strategies for smallholder dairy farming systems in Sub‐Saharan Africa (SSA) were simulated and evaluated considering cow traits identified as priorities by farmers in different agro‐ecological zones. These traits were related to cow milk yield, fertility, temperament, feed intake and disease resistance. The first breeding strategy was based on continuous importation of genetically superior exotic dairy sire semen to SSA and crossing with local females leading to a gradual upgrade of the indigenous population. The second strategy assumed that semen from elite exotic bulls would be imported to SSA and used on indigenous cows to produce F1 animals. Thereafter, elite animals would be selected from within the F1 and each subsequent generation to establish a new synthetic breed. The third strategy was to improve the indigenous population by genetically selecting the best sires available domestically. Results showed positive genetic progress for all breeding goal traits. After 15 generations of selection, the genetic response of the importation strategy exceeded the corresponding genetic response of the synthetic breed strategy by 20%–60%. The former also exceeded the genetic response of the indigenous breed improvement strategy by 43%–75%. Potentially there is an opportunity for breeders to choose an appropriate breeding strategy that fits a specific need of smallholder dairy farmers.

Background: The California mastitis test (CMT) is a simple cow-side indicator of the somatic cell count (SCC) in milk, providing a useful tool in identifying cases of subclinical mastitis in cattle. Mastitis, and in particular subclinical mastitis, is a major concern in Ethiopia and Nigeria, yet detection is challenging due to cost and access to commercial CMT reagents. Methods: Commercially available domestic detergents from Ethiopia and Nigeria were compared (n = 3 for each country) with the UK commercial CMT reagent in their ability to detect high SCC (>400,000 cells/ml milk). Sensitivity and specificity of the CMT test were calculated for the different detergents and positive and negative predictive values were established. Results: The average sensitivities of the tests ranged from 28-75% for the Ethiopian detergents and 68-80% for the Nigerian detergents, compared to 76% for the UK domestic detergent. Test specificities were 84-98%, 93-97% and 96%, respectively. Conclusions: Overall, the detergents demonstrated higher specificity than sensitivity. Nigerian detergents performed better than the Ethiopian products, however, the study identified suitable domestic detergents from both Ethiopia and Nigeria, comparable to the UK commercial CMT reagent, and we recommend their use as alternative CMT reagents for livestock-keepers to aid in cost-effective diagnosis of mastitis.

Immunisation of livestock with high quality vaccines is considered an essential approach to controlling many animal diseases. The only currently available commercial vaccine to protect cattle from East Coast fever (ECF), a tick-borne disease caused by Theileria parva, is an unconventional “infection and treatment method” (ITM) involving administration of a combination of live T. parva isolates, referred to as the “Muguga cocktail”, and simultaneous treatment with long-acting oxytetracycline. Veterinary vaccine research and development typically involves studies designed to demonstrate vaccine quality, safety, and efficacy; however, as there were no such purpose-designed registration studies conducted for the Muguga cocktail, evidence for safety and efficacy is solely based on that which is available in the clinical literature. An extensive systematic review was conducted to analyse the evidence available in the literature in order to establish the safety and efficacy of the Muguga cocktail vaccine. A combination of meta-analyses and narrative summaries was conducted. A total of 61 studies met the criteria to be included in the systematic review. The majority of studies demonstrated or reported in favour of the vaccine with regards to safety and efficacy of the Muguga cocktail vaccine. Proximity to buffalo often resulted in reduced vaccine efficacy, and reports of shed and transmission of vaccine components affected the overall interpretation of safety. Better understanding of control options for this devastating livestock disease is important for policymakers and livestock keepers, enabling them to make informed decisions with regards to the health of their animals and their livelihoods.