TGF-β has been described as a mediator of fibrosis and scarring. Several studies achieved reduction in experimental scarring through the inhibition of TGF-β. Fibroblasts have been defined as the cell population originating fibrosis, blocking fibroblast invasion may impair epidural fibrosis appearance. For this purpose, biocompatible materials used as mechanical barriers and a TGF-β inhibitor peptide were evaluated in the reduction of epidural fibrosis. A L6 laminectomy was performed in 40 New Zealand white rabbits. Divided into four groups, each rabbit was assigned to receive either collagen sponge scaffold (CS group), gelatin-based gel (GCP group), P144® (iTGFβ group), or left untreated (control group). Four weeks after surgery, cell density, collagen content, and new bone formation of the scar area were determined by histomorphometry. Two experienced pathologists scored dura mater adhesion, scar density, and inflammatory infiltrate in a blinded manner. In all groups, laminectomy site was filled with fibrous tissue and the dura mater presented adhesions. Only GCP group presented a significant reduction in collagen content and scar density. GCP treatment reduces epidural fibrosis although did not prevent dura mater adhesion completely.

Lung cancer continues to be the leading cause of cancer‐related mortality, with cytologic samples often serving as the primary diagnostic tool. However, differentiating between benign and malignant processes in lung cytology can be difficult because various non‐neoplastic conditions closely resemble malignant lesions, which may lead to misdiagnosis. This review offers nine essential tips to help cytopathologists prevent false‐positive diagnoses of malignancy in non‐neoplastic processes. By examining common non‐neoplastic entities that can mimic lung malignancies, this review emphasizes their key cytomorphologic features and distinguishing characteristics. The authors stress the importance of a thorough clinical and radiologic context, slide background evaluation, and identification of cytomorphologic features for an accurate diagnosis of these mimics. The objective of this review was to enhance diagnostic accuracy and prevent misdiagnosis, thereby improving patient management in lung cancer cytopathology.

In the era of personalized medicine, there is an increasing demand for comprehensive and complex diagnosis using minimally invasive techniques. Nowadays, it is mandatory to integrate biomarkers in the diagnostic process, as well as in the treatment and clinical management of many cancer patients. Patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), for instance, are frequently diagnosed in advanced stages, at a point when only cytological material or small biopsies can be obtained. This pathology constitutes an interesting challenge for the testing of biomarkers in cytology. Furthermore, there is a growing development of imaging techniques that guide non-invasive approaches to obtain small biopsies or cytological samples. This has allowed fine needle aspiration cytology and fine needle aspiration biopsy (FNAC, FNAB) to become front-line procedures in the management of patients with NSCLC. It is well known that the list of biomarkers to be tested in these patients continues to increase. Nevertheless, there are several of essential biomarkers that should always be analyzed in all patients with NSCLC, not only in non-squamous but also in some squamous carcinomas (SqCC). Some of them, such as PDL1, are tested by immunocytochemistry (ICC), while others, mainly ALK and ROS1, can be tested by ICC and confirmed using other techniques such a Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH). Other biomarkers, namely EGFR and BRAF mutations, are currently evaluated by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based techniques including Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS). In this review, we will address the particularities and challenges that ICC and FISH pose in different types of cytological samples from an eminently practical point of view.

Objective: Formalin‐fixed, paraffin‐embedded (FFPE) cell blocks (CBs) are widely used for processing cytology specimens, but preparation methods remain variable and non‐standardised. Low cellularity is a common limitation that may compromise diagnostic utility. This study aimed to evaluate the cellularity of routinely prepared CBs across different preparation methods, laboratories and sample types. Methods: Each laboratory in this multicentre observational study retrospectively assessed 50 consecutive CBs prepared using a single method. Cellularity of Haematoxylin and Eosin (H&E)‐stained sections was semi‐quantitatively evaluated by two independent reviewers per laboratory in four categories: acellular, low (≤ 100 cells), medium (100–500 cells) and high cellular (> 500 cells). The proportion of poorly cellular CBs (acellular + low cellular) was compared across methods, laboratories and sample types using non‐parametric tests. Results: Cellularity was assessed for 1817 CBs prepared using Agar (22%), HistoGel (19%), Plasma‐Thrombin (19%), Cellient (17%), In‐house (15%) and Shandon/Epredia (8%) methods. The proportion of poorly cellular CBs ranged from 4% to 80% across laboratories (mean 27%, median 25%), with no consistent clustering by method. Median proportions by method ranged from 12% (Cellient) to 35% (Agar), but inter‐method differences were not statistically significant ( p > 0.05). Substantial variability was observed both across and within sample types and preparation methods. Conclusions: The study revealed marked variability in the proportion of poorly cellular CBs among preparation methods and laboratories, highlighting the need for improved processing and monitoring of CB adequacy.