Mitochondria are subcellular organelles involved in essential cellular functions, including cytosolic calcium regulation, cell apoptosis, and reactive oxygen species production. They are the site of important biochemical pathways, including the tricarboxylic acid cycle, parts of the ureagenesis cycle, or haem synthesis. Mitochondria are responsible for the majority of cellular ATP production through OXPHOS. Mitochondrial dysfunction has been associated with metabolic pathologies such as diabetes, obesity, hypertension, neurodegenerative diseases, cellular aging, and cancer. In this article, we describe the pathophysiological changes in, and mitochondrial role of, metabolic disorders (diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular disease) and their correlation with oxidative stress. We highlight the genetic changes identified at the mtDNA level. Additionally, we selected several representative biomarkers involved in oxidative stress and summarize the progress of therapeutic strategies.

Saliva has emerged as a powerful diagnostic tool due to its non-invasive collection, straightforward storage, and ability to mirror systemic health. This narrative review explores the diagnostic potential of salivary biomarkers in detecting systemic diseases, supported by examples such as salivary proteomics’ role in monitoring endocrine disorders, cancer, and viral infections. Advances in technologies like microfluidics, biosensors, and next-generation sequencing have enhanced the sensitivity and specificity of salivary diagnostics, making it a viable alternative to blood-based diagnostics. The review also evaluates challenges such as the need for standardized collection protocols, variability in salivary composition, and the integration of these technologies into clinical workflows. The findings emphasize the transformative potential of saliva in personalized medicine, especially for early disease detection and real-time health monitoring. Practical applications include its use in mass screenings and public health crises, highlighting saliva as a cornerstone for future advancements in non-invasive diagnostics.

In recent years, research has shown that oxidative stress plays a significant role in chronic inflammatory conditions. The alteration of the oxidant/antioxidant balance leads to the appearance of free radicals, important molecules involved in both diabetes mellitus and periodontal disease. Diabetes is considered to be one of the major risk factors of periodontal disease and the inflammation characterizing this condition is associated with oxidative stress, implicitly resulting in oxidative damage to DNA. 8-Hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) is the most common stable product of oxidative DNA damage caused by reactive oxygen species, and its levels have been reported to increase in body fluids and tissues during inflammatory conditions. 8-OHdG emerges as a pivotal biomarker for assessing oxidative DNA damage, demonstrating its relevance across diverse health conditions, including neurodegenerative disorders, cancers, inflammatory conditions, and periodontal disease. Continued research in this field is crucial for developing more precise treatments and understanding the detailed link between oxidative stress and the progression of periodontitis. The use of the 8-OHdG biomarker in assessing and managing chronic periodontitis is an area of increased interest in dental research, with the potential to provide crucial information for diagnosis and treatment.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing the field of oral and dental healthcare by offering innovative tools and techniques for optimizing diagnosis, treatment planning, and patient management. This narrative review explores the current applications of AI in dentistry, focusing on its role in enhancing diagnostic accuracy and efficiency. AI technologies, such as machine learning, deep learning, and computer vision, are increasingly being integrated into dental practice to analyze clinical images, identify pathological conditions, and predict disease progression. By utilizing AI algorithms, dental professionals can detect issues like caries, periodontal disease and oral cancer at an earlier stage, thus improving patient outcomes.

(1) Background: The aim of this split-mouth design study was to analyze the clinical periodontal indexes and oxidative stress markers in gingival crevicular fluid modifications after three periodontal disease treatment possibilities (scaling and root planning—SRP; SRP and diode laser—L; SRP and photodynamic therapy—PDT). (2) Methods: The study was conducted on 52 patients: systemically healthy subjects with periodontal disease—non-RA (n = 26); and test group (n = 26) subjects with rheumatoid arthritis and periodontal disease—RA. Clinical periodontal measurements (probing depth—PD; Löe and Silness gingival index—GI; papillary bleeding index—PBI; and periodontal community index of treatment needs—CPITN) and oxidative stress markers (8-hydroxy-2’-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) and 4 hydroxynonenal (4-HNE)) were analyzed at baseline (T0), after three sessions of periodontal treatment (T1), and 6 months after treatment (T2). (3) Results: Periodontal therapy improved clinical periodontal measurements and oxidative stress markers in both analyzed groups, with supplementary benefits for laser- and PDT-treated periodontal pockets. (4) Conclusions: The analyzed oxidative stress markers decreased significantly following non-surgical periodontal therapy in both rheumatoid arthritis and systemically healthy patients. All the periodontal disease treatment possibilities analyzed in this study offered clinical and paraclinical improvements; however, the association of laser with SRP and photodisinfection with SRP yielded the best clinical and paraclinical outcomes when compared to SRP alone.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a complex metabolic disorder characterized by insulin resistance and, subsequently, decreased insulin secretion. This condition is closely linked to obesity, a major risk factor that boosts the development of chronic systemic inflammation, which, in turn, is recognized for its crucial role in the onset of insulin resistance. Under conditions of obesity, adipose tissue, particularly visceral fat, becomes an active endocrine organ that releases a wide range of pro-inflammatory mediators, including cytokines, chemokines, and adipokines. These mediators, along with cluster of differentiation (CD) markers, contribute to the maintenance of systemic low-grade inflammation, promote cellular signaling and facilitate the infiltration of inflammatory cells into tissues. Emerging studies have indicated the accumulation of a new cell population in the adipose tissue in these conditions, known as myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). These cells possess the ability to suppress the immune system, impacting obesity-related chronic inflammation. Given the limited literature addressing the role of MDSCs in the context of type 2 diabetes, this article aims to explore the complex interaction between inflammation, obesity, and MDSC activity. Identifying and understanding the role of these immature cells is essential not only for improving the management of type 2 diabetes but also for the potential development of targeted therapeutic strategies aimed at both glycemic control and the reduction in associated inflammation.