The capsid of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is a shell that encloses viral RNA and is highly conserved among many strains of the virus. It forms a conical structure by assembling oligomers of capsid (CA) proteins. CA dysfunction is expected to be an important target of suppression of HIV-1 replication, and it is important to understand a new mechanism that could lead to the CA dysfunction. A drug targeting CA however, has not been developed to date. Hydrophobic interactions between two CA molecules via Trp184/Met185 in CA were recently reported to be important for stabilization of the multimeric structure of CA. In the present study, a small molecule designed by in silico screening as a dipeptide mimic of Trp184 and Met185 in the interaction site, was synthesized and its significant anti-HIV-1 activity was confirmed. Structure activity relationship (SAR) studies of its derivatives were performed and provided results that are expected to be useful in the future design and development of novel anti-HIV agents targeting CA.

Lamellarin α 20-sulfate is a cell-impenetrable marine alkaloid that can suppress infection that is mediated by the envelope glycoprotein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. We explored the antiviral action and mechanisms of this alkaloid against emerging enveloped RNA viruses that use endocytosis for infection. The alkaloid inhibited the infection of retroviral vectors that had been pseudotyped with the envelope glycoprotein of Ebola virus and SARS-CoV-2. The antiviral effects of lamellarin were independent of the retrovirus Gag-Pol proteins. Interestingly, although heparin and dextran sulfate suppressed the cell attachment of vector particles, lamellarin did not. In silico structural analyses of the trimeric glycoprotein of the Ebola virus disclosed that the principal lamellarin-binding site is confined to a previously unappreciated cavity near the NPC1-binding site and fusion loop, whereas those for heparin and dextran sulfate were dispersed across the attachment and fusion subunits of the glycoproteins. Notably, lamellarin binding to this cavity was augmented under conditions where the pH was 5.0. These results suggest that the final action of the alkaloid against Ebola virus is specific to events following endocytosis, possibly during conformational glycoprotein changes in the acidic environment of endosomes. Our findings highlight the unique biological and physicochemical features of lamellarin α 20-sulfate and should lead to the further use of broadly reactive antivirals to explore the structural mechanisms of virus replication.

Coxsackievirus B (CVB) causes severe morbidity and mortality in neonates and is sometimes associated with severe brain damage resulting from acute severe viral encephalomyelitis. However, the neuropathology of CVB infection remains unclear. A prototype strain of coxsackievirus B2 (Ohio-1) induces brain lesions in neonatal mice, resulting in dome-shaped heads, ventriculomegaly, and loss of the cerebral cortex. Here, we characterized the glial pathology in this mouse model. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed an absence of the cerebral cortex within 2 weeks after inoculation. Histopathology showed that virus replication triggered activation of microglia and astrocytes, and induced apoptosis in the cortex, with severe necrosis and lateral ventricular dilation. In contrast, the brainstem and cerebellum remained morphologically intact. Immunohistochemistry revealed high expression of the coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor (a primary receptor for CVB) in mature neurons of the cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, and midbrain, demonstrating CVB2 infection of mature neurons in these areas. However, apoptosis and neuroinflammation from activated microglia and astrocytes differed in thalamic and cortical areas. Viral antigens were retained in the brains of animals in the convalescence phase with seroconversion. This animal model will contribute to a better understanding of the neuropathology of CVB infection.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) uptakes homo-dimerized viral RNA genome into its own particle. A cis-acting viral RNA segment responsible for this event, termed packaging signal (psi), is located at the 5′-end of the viral genome. Although the psi segment exhibits nucleotide variation in nature, its effects on the psi function largely remain unknown. Here we show that a psi sequence from an HIV-1 regional variant, subtype D, has a lower packaging ability compared with that from another regional variant, HIV-1 subtype B, despite maintaining similar genome dimerization activities. A series of molecular genetic investigations narrowed down the responsible element of the selective attenuation to the two sequential nucleotides at positions 226 and 227 in the psi segment. Molecular dynamics simulations predicted that the dinucleotide substitution alters structural dynamics, fold, and hydrogen-bond networks primarily of the psi-SL2 element that contains the binding interface of viral nucleocapsid protein for the genome packaging. In contrast, such structural changes were minimal within the SL1 element involved in genome dimerization. These results suggest that the psi 226/227 dinucleotide pair functions as a cis-acting regulator to control the psi structure to selectively tune the efficiency of packaging, but not dimerization of highly variable HIV-1 genomes.

Reverse transcriptase (RT) and integrase (IN) are encoded tandemly in the pol genes of retroviruses. We reported recently that HIV-1 RT and IN need to be supplied as the pol precursor intermediates, in which RT and IN are in fusion form (RTIN) to exert efficient reverse transcription in the context of HIV-1 replication. The mechanism underlying RTIN’s effect, however, remains to be elucidated. In this study, we examined the effect of IN fusion on RT during reverse transcription by an in vitro cell-free assay, using recombinant HIV-1 RTIN (rRTIN). We found that, compared to recombinant RT (rRT), rRTIN generated significantly higher cDNAs under physiological concentrations of dNTPs (less than 10 μM), suggesting increased affinity of RTIN to dNTPs. Importantly, the cleavage of RTIN with HIV-1 protease reduced cDNA levels at a low dose of dNTPs. Similarly, sensitivities against RT inhibitors were significantly altered in RTIN form. Finally, analysis of molecular dynamics simulations of RT and RTIN suggested that IN can influence the structural dynamics of the RT active center and the inhibitor binding pockets in cis. Thus, we demonstrated, for the first time, the cis-allosteric regulatory roles of IN in RT structure and enzymatic activity.

The stalk domain of influenza virus envelope glycoprotein hemagglutinin (HA) constitutes the axis connecting the head and transmembrane domains, and plays pivotal roles in conformational rearrangements of HA for virus infection. Here we characterized molecular interactions between the anti-HA stalk neutralization antibody F11 and influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 HA to understand the structural basis of the actions and modifications of this antibody. In silico structural analyses using a model of the trimeric HA ectodomain indicated that the F11 Fab fragment has physicochemical properties, allowing it to crosslink two HA monomers by binding to a region near the proteolytic cleavage site of the stalk domain. Interestingly, the F11 binding allosterically caused a marked suppression of the structural dynamics of the HA cleavage loop and flanking regions. Structure-guided mutagenesis of the F11 antibody revealed a critical residue in the F11 light chain for the F11-mediated neutralization. Finally, the mutagenesis led to identification of a unique F11 derivative that can neutralize both F11-sensitive and F11-resistant A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses. These results raise the possibility that F11 sterically and physically disturbs proteolytic cleavage of HA for the ordered conformational rearrangements and suggest that in silico guiding experiments can be useful to create anti-HA stalk antibodies with new phenotypes.