Macrophages play an important role in host-defense and inflammation. In response to an immune challenge, macrophages become activated and produce proinflammatory mediators that contribute to nonspecific immunity. The mediators released by activated macrophages include: superoxide anion; reactive nitrogen intermediates, such as nitric oxide and peroxynitrite; bioactive lipids; and cytokines. Although essential to the immune response, overproduction of certain macrophage-derived mediators during an immune challenge or inflammatory response can result in tissue injury and cellular death. The present report is focused on understanding some of the molecular mechanisms used by macrophages to produce reactive nitrogen intermediates in response to immunostimulatory agents such as heat shock protein 60 and bacterial lipopolysaccharide. The role of Toll-like receptors and transcription factors such as nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) in the innate immune response is also described. A basic understanding of the underly...

PMA1 is a yeast gene that codes for the plasma membrane H ⁺ -ATPase, a protein commonly referred to as Pma1p. Ebselen (2-phenyl-1,2-benzisoselenazol-3(2H)-one) is a synthetic selenium-containing compound that has recently been shown to display antimicrobial activity owing to its ability to inhibit Pma1p. Ebselen is able to block the activity of Pma1p not only in opportunistic pathogens such as Cryptococcus neoformans and Candida albicans but also in nonpathogenic yeasts such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae . A series of in vitro studies aimed at evaluating the antifungal activity of ebselen were performed. At low concentrations (<10 μM), ebselen was fungistatic against three strains of S. cerevisiae (IC ₅₀ ∼ 3 μM) and one fluconazole-resistant strain of C. albicans (IC ₅₀ ∼ 6 μM), and at a high concentration (30 μM) it was fungicidal against C. albicans . Moreover, ebselen was found to inhibit medium acidification by the fluconazole-resistant strain of C. albicans in a concentration-dependent manner. In comparison to currently used antifungal agents represented by azole (itraconazole, ketoconazole, fluconazole) and polyene (amphotericin B) compounds, ebselen was at least 10-fold more potent than fluconazole but less active than the other compounds tested. The present results suggest that the growth inhibitory activity of ebselen toward fluconazole-resistant yeast cells is due, at least in part, to inhibition of Pma1p. Ebselen may also serve as a useful agent in the treatment of infections caused by fluconazole-resistant fungi.

The plasma membrane H⁺-ATPase pump (Pma1p) has been proposed as a viable target for antifungal drugs since this high capacity proton pump plays a critical role in the intracellular regulation of pH and in nutrient uptake of yeast and other fungi. In recent years, this and other laboratories have verified that the antifungal activity of 2-phenylbenzisoselenazol-3(2H)-one, an organoselenium compound commonly referred to as ebselen (1), stems, at least in part, from its inhibitory action on the fungal Pma1p. In the present study, the antifungal efficacy of 2-(3-pyridinyl)-benzisoselenazol-3(2H)-one (2) and 2-phenylbenzisoselenazol-3(2H)-one 1-oxide (3), two ebselen analogs, was evaluated using a strain of S. cerevisiae and compared against that of 1. In addition, the study also examined the inhibitory potential of these three compounds toward the Pma1p of S. cerevisiae. Based on mean IC₅₀ values, the antifungal potency was found to decrease in the order 3 > 1 > 2. However, in terms of inhibitory action on Pma1p, the potency decreased in the order 1 > 3 > 2. The magnitude of these activities appears to be correlated with the corresponding log P values, with compound 2 being the most hydrophilic and the least active of the three.