Background: Maternal obesity and maternal overnutrition, can lead to epigenetic alterations during pregnancy and these alterations can influence fetal and neonatal phenotype which increase the risk of metabolic disorders in later stages of life.Objective: The effects of maternal obesity on fetal programming and potential mechanisms of maternal epigenetic regulation of gene expression which have persistent effects on fetal health and development were investigated.Method: Review of the literature was carried out in order to discuss the effects of maternal obesity and epigenetic mechanisms in fetal programming of metabolic disorders. All abstracts and full-text articles were examined and the most relevant articles were included in this review.Results: Maternal obesity and maternal overnutrition during fetal period has important overall effects on long-term health. Maternal metabolic alterations during early stages of fetal development can lead to permanent changes in organ structures, cell numbers and metabolism. Epigenetic modifications (DNA methylation, histone modifications, microRNAs) play an important role in disease susceptibility in the later stages of human life. Maternal nutrition alter expression of hypothalamic genes which can increase fetal and neonatal energy intake. Epigenetic modifications may affect the increasing rate of obesity and other metabolic disorders worldwide since the impact of these changes can be passed through generations.Conclusion: Weight management before and during pregnancy, together with healthy nutritional intakes may improve the maternal metabolic environment, which can reduce the risks of fetal programming of metabolic diseases. Further evidence from long-term follow-up studies are needed in order to determine the role of maternal obesity on epigenetic mechanisms.

Maternal high-fat diet (HFD) during pregnancy is associated with rapid weight gain and fetal fat mass increase at an early stage. Also, HFD during pregnancy can cause the activation of proinflammatory cytokines. Maternal insulin resistance and inflammation lead to increased adipose tissue lipolysis, and also increased free fatty acid (FFA) intake during pregnancy (˃35% of energy from fat) cause a significant increase in FFA levels in the fetus. However, both maternal insulin resistance and HFD have detrimental effects on adiposity in early life. As a result of these metabolic alterations, excess fetal lipid exposure may affect fetal growth and development. On the other hand, increase in blood lipids and inflammation can adversely affect the development of the liver, adipose tissue, brain, skeletal muscle, and pancreas in the fetus, increasing the risk for metabolic disorders. In addition, maternal HFD is associated with changes in the hypothalamic regulation of body weight and energy homeostasis by altering the expression of the leptin receptor, POMC, and neuropeptide Y in the offspring, as well as altering methylation and gene expression of dopamine and opioid-related genes which cause changes in eating behavior. All these maternal metabolic and epigenetic changes may contribute to the childhood obesity epidemic through fetal metabolic programming. Dietary interventions, such as limiting dietary fat intake <35% with appropriate fatty acid intake during the gestation period are the most effective type of intervention to improve the maternal metabolic environment during pregnancy. Appropriate nutritional intake during pregnancy should be the principal goal in reducing the risks of obesity and metabolic disorders.

In this study discussed the primary and regulatory roles of fatty acids, and investigated the affects of fatty acids on metabolic programming. Review of the literature was carried out on three electronic databases to assess the roles of fatty acids in metabolic programming. All abstracts and full-text articles were examined, and the most relevant articles were selected for screening and inclusion in this review. The mother’s nutritional environment during fetal period has important effects on long term health. Fatty acids play a primary role in growth and development. Alterations in fatty acid intake in the fetal period may increase the risk of obesity and metabolic disorders in later life. Maternal fatty acid intakes during pregnancy and lactation are passed to the fetus and the newborn via the placenta and breast milk, respectively. Imbalances in fatty acid intake during the fetal period change the fatty acid composition of membrane phospholipids, which can cause structural and functional problems in cells. Additionally, the metabolic and neuroendocrine environments of the fetus and the newborn play key roles in the regulation of energy balance. Imbalances in fatty acid intake during pregnancy and lactation may result in permanent changes in appetite control, neuroendocrine function and energy metabolism in the fetus, leading to metabolic programming. Further studies are needed to determine the role of fatty acid intake in metabolic programming.

Olive oil is considered as a key component of the healthy property of the Mediterranean diet due to its fatty acid, vitamin and polyphenol composition. High monounsaturated fatty acids, and in particular oleic acid, are responsible for the benefits obtained from consuming olive oil. Also, the known benefits are considered to be due to a combination of several phytochemicals. There are more than 200 minor components in olive oil with biological activities. The most abundant antioxidants in olive oil are tocopherols, β-carotene, lutein, squalene, lipophilic and hydrophilic phenols. Phenolic acids and derivatives (vanillic acid, gallic acid), phenolic alcohols (tyrosol, hydroxytyrosol), secoiridoids (oleuropein, oleocanthal), lignans (pinoresinol), and flavones (luteolin) are phenolic compounds of olive oil. Olive oil polyphenols have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-atherogenic, anti-thrombotic, anti-mutagenic and hypoglycemic characteristics. Hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol, oleuropein and oleocanthal are the phenolic compounds that are mainly responsible for antioxidant activity, protection from blood lipid oxidation, anti-inflammatory activity, the anticarcinogenic potential, the oxidative stress resistance, and other positive impacts over human health. Additionally, olive oil contains oleocanthal, which may have an effect on several inflammatory diseases. Olive oil rich diet protects human health from cardiovascular diseases (cardiometabolic markers such as blood pressure, glycaemia and dyslipidemia, notably by reducing LDL cholesterol and LDL oxidation), type-2 diabetes, obesity, cancer, inflammation, and oxidative stress.

Objective: This study aims to investigate the effects of nutritional status of individuals between the ages of 20-45 on emotional eating, night eating and sleep quality. Methods: 378 individuals between the ages of 20-45 years were included in the study. The nutritional status of individuals was obtained by using the retrospective individual food consumption recall method and the catalog of nutrient and food photographs, and anthropometric measurements were taken. In addition, Three Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ-R21), Night Eating Questionnaire, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PUKI) were used. Results: Cognitive restriction scores of individuals with normal body weight are lower than those with overweight (p<0.05). Evening hyperphagia scores of underweight individuals were higher than overweight individuals (p<0.05). There were positive correlations between carbohydrate intakes and night eating, mood and sleep disorder scores of male individuals, as well as between disaccharide intake and evening hyperphagia scores (p<0.05). Negative correlations were found between carbohydrate intake of women and cognitive restriction, night eating, mood and sleep disorder scores (p<0.05). Conclusion: : Emotional eating behaviors, night eating tendencies and sleep quality that individuals show depending on their changing emotional states may affect their nutritional status and food consumption amounts, so it is important to evaluate these factors in order to provide body weight control and maintain healthy eating habits. Amaç: Bu çalışmada, 20-45 yaş aralığındaki bireylerin beslenme durumlarının, duygusal yeme, gece yeme ve uyku kalitesi üzerindeki etkilerinin araştırılması amaçlanmıştır. Yöntem: Çalışmaya 20-45 yaş arası 378 birey dahil edilmiştir. Bireylerin beslenme durumları geriye dönük bireysel besin tüketimi hatırlatma yöntemi ile yemek ve besin fotoğrafları kataloğundan yararlanılarak elde edilmiştir ve antropometrik ölçümleri alınmıştır. Ayrıca, Üç Faktörlü Yeme Anketi (TFEQ-R21), Gece Yeme Anketi, Pittsburgh Uyku Kalite İndeksi (PUKİ) kullanılmıştır. Bulgular: Normal vücut ağırlığına sahip bireylerin bilişsel kısıtlama puanları fazla kilolu bireylere göre düşüktür (p<0,05). Zayıf bireylerin akşam hiperfajisi puanları fazla kilolu bireylere göre yüksektir (p<0,05). Erkek bireylerin karbonhidrat alımları ile gece yeme, duygudurum ve uyku bozukluğu puanları arasında, ayrıca disakkarit alımları ile akşam hiperfajisi puanları arasında pozitif yönlü korelasyonlar olduğu saptanmıştır (p<0,05). Kadınların karbonhidrat alımları ile bilişsel kısıtlama, gece yeme ve duygudurum ve uyku bozukluğu puanları arasında negatif yönlü korelasyonlar bulunmuştur (p<0,05). Sonuç: Bireylerin değişen duygu durumlarına bağlı olarak gösterdikleri duygusal yeme davranışları, gece yeme eğilimleri ve uyku kaliteleri, beslenme durumlarını ve besin tüketim miktarlarını etkileyebilmektedir, bu nedenle vücut ağırlığı kontrolünün sağlanması ve sağlıklı beslenme alışkanlıklarının sürdürülebilmesinde bu faktörlerin değerlendirilmesi önemlidir.