International interest in Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) is on the rise. This exploratory research presents insights of a sample of licensed deck officers (LDOs) regarding the potential future of the Collision Avoidance Regulations (COLREGs) with the implementation of MASS. At present, there is much discussion in the maritime industry on if and how the COLREGs will need to be amended to be able to be applied to MASS. Limited research is published from the key perspective of the LDO. Qualitative and quantitative methods are used, including a literature review and a multiple-choice survey. Data is analyzed via descriptive statistics, and commonalities within the results are investigated as well as years of experience with practicing the COLREGs. Results show that many barriers exist when applying the COLREGs to MASS, and minor amendments to certain terms and definitions are recommended. Moreover, the COLREGs should not be quantified, and MASS should be identifiable from other vessels. LDOs with more experience with practicing the COLREGs are found to be slightly more open to changing the rules versus LDOs with less experience. When compared to the results of the International Maritime Organization’s regulatory scoping exercise, the results of this study are found to be in congruence. This research provides valuable insights for the ongoing discussion of the future of MASS operation in the maritime industry.

As autonomous technologies proliferate in the shipping industry, limited research has been conducted on its potential implications on the Licensed Deck Officer. This research examines the potential benefits and risks of increased onboard automation with the reduction and/or removal of onboard crew on the Licensed Deck Officer. Qualitative methods of literature review, survey, and individual semi-structured interviews were used. The rating scale method and Likert Bar Graph scaling approach convey survey results. A Theoretical Thematic Analysis was used to analyze interview data. Reliability, validity, and objectivity of Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) interviewed are part of the research strategy. It was found that many barriers exist to the implementation of autonomous vessels, mostly revolving around crew and vessel safety. Reducing crews and increasing shipboard automation have potentially negative effects on the Licensed Deck Officer, including sensor over-reliance, decreased situational awareness, and increased complacency, while providing no reduction in onboard duties or fatigue. Changes in navigational, manning, and liability regulation must be addressed by maritime authorities first. The shipping industry’s mindset is slow to change, but with this inevitable technology, the mariner will adapt. Insights generated from this research will benefit involved stakeholders to better understand and prepare for changes in the maritime industry due to the onset of autonomous shipping.

Maritime autonomous surface ships are the inevitable way of the future. To date, there is limited research on how their implementation will affect those who are responsible for vessel navigation - the licensed deck officer. Insights generated from this research will benefit maritime industry stakeholders to better understand and prepare for changes in the industry due to the onset of autonomous shipping and will contribute to safe navigational practices in the future. This research investigates the reasons for the maritime industry’s trend towards autonomy, the risks and benefits of its implementation on the licensed deck officer, their perceptions towards autonomous vessels, potential impacts autonomous vessels may have on the collision avoidance regulations, and mariners’ performance and acceptance of interacting with them. This dissertation presents three comprehensive studies exploring the convergence of today’s mariner with the rise of vessel automation. The first article identifies barriers to autonomous vessel implementation, emphasizing the need for regulatory changes. It highlights concerns about reducing crew size with increased automation which could negatively affect licensed deck officers, particularly when it comes to vessel safety. Despite these challenges, mariners have proved adaptable, though maritime training institutions are not yet fully prepared for these shifts. The second article reveals that licensed deck officers acknowledge the need to potentially amend select collision avoidance regulations to accommodate for autonomous vessels, including clarifying certain definitions and considering specific lighting rules. The third article demonstrates that significant navigational performance differences exist between mariners with varying levels of experience when interacting with traditional crewed vessels versus autonomous vessels. Following exposure to autonomous vessels within a full mission bridge simulator, most mariner participants show acceptance of this new technology and perceive to treat them as any other vessel, although they desire to know at what levels of autonomation they are operating in. This research offers critical insights into human factors with the implementation of autonomous vessels. The findings highlight the evolving dynamics between traditional maritime practices and emerging technologies. It emphasizes the importance of incorporating autonomy into maritime education and the necessity for continued research into human performance in mixed-traffic scenarios. As the maritime industry embraces technological advancements, effective collaboration between mariners and academic, industry, and regulatory stakeholders is crucial to ensure the safe and successful integration of vessel autonomy.

Research and development of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) has surged in recent years. However, questions remain regarding the safety of interactions between MASS and conventionally crewed ships in mixed-traffic environments, particularly during collision avoidance. Although the critical role of MASS technology is widely recognised, few studies have explored how these interactions may affect the behaviour of the conventional ship’s Officer of the Watch (OOW). The primary aim of this paper is to explore the challenges and complexities of mixed-traffic interaction from the perspective of the conventional OOW as an active participant in collision avoidance. A collision-avoidance framework is presented as an analytical lens linking situational awareness, motion prediction, mental models, conflict detection, conflict resolution, and manoeuvre execution. This framework is used to examine challenges related to communication, COLREG interpretation, uncertainty surrounding MASS capabilities and operations, knowledge and training, and trust. We argue that these factors may influence how OOWs interpret MASS behaviour and determine whether, when, and how to intervene. To address this research gap, key research questions are formulated, and a scenario-driven methodological approach using Full Mission Bridge Simulators (FMBS) is proposed to investigate changes in OOW behaviour and decision-making during mixed-traffic encounters.