Female soccer has seen a substantial rise in participation, as well as increased financial support from governing bodies over the last decade. Thus, there is an onus on researchers and medical departments to develop a better understanding of the physical characteristics and demands, and the health and performance needs of female soccer players. In this review, we discuss the current research, as well as the knowledge gaps, of six major topics: physical demands, talent identification, body composition, injury risk and prevention, health and nutrition. Data on female talent identification are scarce, and future studies need to elucidate the influence of relative age and maturation selection across age groups. Regarding the physical demands, more research is needed on the pattern of high-intensity sprinting during matches and the contribution of soccer-specific movements. Injuries are not uncommon in female soccer players, but targeting intrinsically modifiable factors with injury prevention programmes can reduce injury rates. The anthropometric and physical characteristics of female players are heterogeneous and setting specific targets should be discouraged in youth and sub-elite players. Menstrual cycle phase may influence performance and injury risk; however, there are few studies in soccer players. Nutrition plays a critical role in health and performance and ensuring adequate energy intake remains a priority. Despite recent progress, there is considerably less research in female than male soccer players. Many gaps in our understanding of how best to develop and manage the health and performance of female soccer players remain.

Hypohydration increases physiological strain and reduces physical and technical soccer performance, but there are limited data on how fluid balance responses change between different types of sessions in professional players. This study investigated sweat and fluid/carbohydrate intake responses in elite male professional soccer players training at low and high intensities in cool and hot environments. Fluid/sodium (Na⁺) losses and ad-libitum carbohydrate/fluid intake of fourteen elite male soccer players were measured on four occasions: cool (wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT): 15 ± 7 °C, 66 ± 6% relative humidity (RH)) low intensity (rating of perceived exertion (RPE) 2–4, m·min⁻¹ 40–46) (CL); cool high intensity (RPE 6–8, m·min⁻¹ 82–86) (CH); hot (29 ± 1 °C, 52 ± 7% RH) low intensity (HL); hot high intensity (HH). Exercise involved 65 ± 5 min of soccer-specific training. Before and after exercise, players were weighed in minimal clothing. During training, players had ad libitum access to carbohydrate beverages and water. Sweat [Na⁺] (mmol·L⁻¹), which was measured by absorbent patches positioned on the thigh, was no different between conditions, CL: 35 ± 9, CH: 38 ± 8, HL: 34 ± 70.17, HH: 38 ± 8 (p = 0.475). Exercise intensity and environmental condition significantly influenced sweat rates (L·h⁻¹), CL: 0.55 ± 0.20, CH: 0.98 ± 0.21, HL: 0.81 ± 0.17, HH: 1.43 ± 0.23 (p =0.001), and percentage dehydration (p < 0.001). Fluid intake was significantly associated with sweat rate (p = 0.019), with no players experiencing hypohydration > 2% of pre-exercise body mass. Carbohydrate intake varied between players (range 0–38 g·h⁻¹), with no difference between conditions. These descriptive data gathered on elite professional players highlight the variation in the hydration status, sweat rate, sweat Na⁺ losses, and carbohydrate intake in response to training in cool and hot environments and at low and high exercise intensities.

Aim: The purpose of this study was to evaluate hydration status, fluid intake, sweat rate, and sweat sodium concentration in recreational tropical native runners. Methods: A total of 102 males and 64 females participated in this study. Participants ran at their self-selected pace for 30–100 min. Age, environmental conditions, running profiles, sweat rates, and sweat sodium data were recorded. Differences in age, running duration, distance and pace, and physiological changes between sexes were analysed. A p-value cut-off of 0.05 depicted statistical significance. Results: Males had lower relative fluid intake (6 ± 6 vs. 8 ± 7 mL·kg⁻¹·h⁻¹, p < 0.05) and greater relative fluid balance deficit (−13 ± 8 mL·kg⁻¹·h⁻¹ vs. −8 ± 7 mL·kg⁻¹·h⁻¹, p < 0.05) than females. Males had higher whole-body sweat rates (1.3 ± 0.5 L·h⁻¹ vs. 0.9 ± 0.3 L·h⁻¹, p < 0.05) than females. Mean rates of sweat sodium loss (54 ± 27 vs. 39 ± 22 mmol·h⁻¹) were higher in males than females (p < 0.05). Conclusions: The sweat profile and composition in tropical native runners are similar to reported values in the literature. The current fluid replacement guidelines pertaining to volume and electrolyte replacement are applicable to tropical native runners.

This study examined sweat rate, sweat sodium concentration [Na⁺], and ad-libitum carbohydrate and fluid intakes in elite female soccer players during training (n = 19) and a match (n = 8); eight completed both for comparisons. Body mass (kg) was obtained before and after exercise to calculate sweat rate. The sweat [Na⁺] was determined from absorbent patches on the thigh or back. Sweat rate, percentage body mass change, and sweat [Na⁺] for 19 players during training were 0.47 ± 0.19 L·h⁻¹, +0.19 ± 0.65%, and 28 ± 10 mmol·L⁻¹, respectively. Sweat rate was higher during a match (0.98 ± 0.34 L·h⁻¹) versus training (0.49 ± 0.26 L·h⁻¹, p = 0.007). Body mass losses were greater post-match (−1.12 ± 0.86%) than training (+0.29 ± 0.34%, p = 0.003). Sweat [Na⁺] was similar for training (29 ± 9 mmol·L⁻¹) and a match (35 ± 9 mmol·L⁻¹) (p = 0.215). There were no differences in match versus training carbohydrate intakes (2.0 ± 2.3 g·h⁻¹, 0.9 ± 1.5 g·h⁻¹, respectively, p = 0.219) or fluid intakes (0.71 ± 0.30 L·h⁻¹, 0.53 ± 0.21 L·h⁻¹, respectively, p = 0.114). In conclusion, female soccer players’ sweat rates were higher during a match than during training, and carbohydrate intakes were below recommendations for matches and training.

Objectives: To quantify self-reported current sleep behaviors in a range of adult athletes. In addition, to determine any differences in sleep duration and sleep quality, depending on sport type and competitive level. Material and Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 313 athletes (243 male, 70 female), competing in a variety of sports and competitive level, completed the Pittsburgh sleep quality index (PSQI) and a questionnaire which captured current sleep behaviors. Sleep quality was calculated using the global PSQI score (≥ 5 indicative of poor sleep quality). Results: On average, athletes self-reported sleep duration was 7:34 ± 1:00 h:min. Overall, 19% of athletes achieved less than 7 h of sleep, 50% achieved less than 8 h. Global PSQI score was 5.0 ± 2.4, with poor sleep quality found in 55% of athletes. Sleep duration was significantly shorter in runners compared to basketball, soccer and rugby players (p < 0.05). Recreational athletes slept significantly less (7:08 ± 0:54 h:min) than competitive (7:32 ± 1:00 h:min), national (7:50 ± 1:00 h:min) and elite level athletes (7:49 ± 0:51 h:min). No differences in sleep quality were found between sport or competitive level. Discussion: Half of the athletes failed to achieve 8 h of sleep per night and the majority reported compromised sleep quality. Sport type and competitive level may influence sleep duration; however, these factors do not seem to cause discrepancies in sleep quality. This study provides novel data into the sleep behaviors of adult athletes, and suggests strategies to improve sleep duration and quality may be warranted.