American foulbrood (AFB) is exclusively an infectious disease of honey bee larvae (Apis mellifera) and their subspecies that is spread easily and rapidly and is often present in apiaries. Due to the resistance and pathogenicity of the bacterial causative agent of the disease, which has considerable epizootiological and economic significance for beekeeping, AFB was classified as a highly dangerous, infectious animal disease by the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH). Considering the severity of the infection, a frequent occurrence, rapid and easy spread, epizooty and enzooty are common. We tried to present an overview of the latest information related to AFB through several chapters. In addition to the latest data on the etiology of the causative agent, the most important elements of the clinical signs of the disease are also listed. Along with an overview of classic microbiological and the latest molecular methods of diagnosis, we also discuss AFB treatment from its differential diagnostic aspect. We hope that through demonstrating the mentioned preventive measures and measures of good beekeeping practice, the review will contribute to the preservation of the health of bees and therefore the overall biodiversity of the planet.

The results of the Serbian national integrated West Nile virus (WNV) surveillance program conducted in 2018 and funded by the Serbian Veterinary Directorate are presented. The WNV surveillance program encompassed the entire territory of Serbia and was conducted by the veterinary service in collaboration with entomologists and ornithologists. The objective of the program was early detection of WNV circulation in the environment and timely reporting to the public health service and local authorities to increase clinical and mosquito control preparedness. The program was based on the detection of WNV presence in wild birds (natural hosts) and mosquitoes (virus vectors) and on serological testing of sentinel horses (WNV-specific IgM antibodies). The season 2018 was confirmed to be the season of the most intensive WNV circulation with the highest number and severity of human cases in Serbia ever reported. The most intense WNV circulation was observed in the northern and central parts of Serbia including Vojvodina Province, the Belgrade City area, and surrounding districts, where most positive samples were detected among sentinel animals, mosquitoes and wild birds. The majority of human cases were preceded by the detection of WNV circulation during the surveillance. The WNV surveillance program in 2018 showed satisfactory results in the capacity to indicate the spatial distribution of the risk for humans and sensitivity to early detection of WNV circulation in the environment.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an important animal disease with significant health and economic impacts. It is considered a notifiable disease by the OIE. Attenuated strains of LSDV have been successfully used as vaccines (LAV) but can also produce mild or systemic reactions. Vaccination campaigns using LAVs are therefore only viable if accompanying DIVA assays are available. Two DIVA qPCR assays able to distinguish Neethling-based LAVs and wild-type LSDV were developed. Upon validation, both assays were shown to have high sensitivity and specificity with a diagnostic performance comparable to other published DIVA assays. This confirmed their potential as reliable tools to confirm infection in animals during vaccination campaigns based on Neethling vaccine strains.

West Nile virus (WNV) can affect humans, birds, horses and another mammals, causing asymptomatic infection, mild febrile disease, neurological and systematic disease and death. In order to gain insight into the prevalence of WNV, a monitoring program has been established in the Republic of Serbia. Whole genome sequencing is essential for the molecular epizootiological analysis of virus entry and transmission routes, especially in high-risk regions. This paper describes the development of a multiplex PCR based NGS protocol for whole genome sequencing of WNV lineage 2 directly from biological samples using Oxford Nanopore (ONT) platform. The results obtained using this platform, confirmed by Sanger sequencing, indicate that this protocol can be applied to obtain whole sequences of the WNV genome, even when the virus concentration in the sample is medium, Ct value is approximately 30. The use of this protocol does not require prior virus isolation on cell culture nor the depletion of host nucleic acids.

This pilot study investigated the presence of potentially zoonotic microorganisms in bat species from Kopaonik National Park, Serbia. A total of 40 individuals from 12 bat species were sampled and screened using microbiological and molecular methods. Salmonella spp., Chlamydia spp., Coxiella burnetii, Francisella tularensis, Leptospira spp., Lyssavirus, Filoviridae, henipaviruses, and SARS-CoV-2 were not detected in any bats. Coronavirus genomes were confirmed in four bats—one Myotis brandtii, two Myotis daubentonii, and one Myotis cf. mystacinus. Sequence analysis identified the presence of alphacoronavirus genomes with high similarity to strains previously found in Europe. Mycoplasma spp. genomes were found in 18 bats (45%), and Rickettsia spp. were detected in five bats (12.5%), although species-level identification was not possible. The findings highlight the presence of certain bacteria and viruses in bats that could have implications for public health, especially in areas with close human–wildlife interaction. Although no direct evidence of high-risk pathogens was found, the results support the importance of continued surveillance and ecological studies on bats, given their role as potential reservoirs. Monitoring bat-associated microorganisms is essential to better understand possible transmission routes and improve the prevention of emerging zoonotic diseases.

Sheep and goat pox are viral diseases caused by sheep pox virus (SPPV) and goat pox virus (GTPV). They belong to the genus Capripoxvirus within the family Poxviridae, together with lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) of cattle (King et al., 2011; Zewdie et al., 2021). The epizootiological situation in the region during recent years indicates intensive virus circulation and a considerable number of outbreaks. During 2025, the disease was reported in several countries in the region: Bulgaria - 191 outbreaks, Greece - 1,703, Romania - 27, Türkiye - 79, and Serbia - 3 outbreaks. In 2026, as of 5 August, further geographical spread was recorded: Bulgaria - 8 outbreaks, Greece - 214, Romania - 6, North Macedonia - 40, Türkiye - 21, Serbia - 1, as well as 4 outbreaks in Kosovo and Metohija (World Organisation for Animal Health [WOAH], n.d.; European Commission, 2026). Such widespread occurrence of the disease in the immediate and wider surroundings of the Republic of Serbia indicates a continuous risk of transboundary spread of infection. Early recognition of clinical signs, prompt reporting of suspected cases, enhanced surveillance, and consistent implementation of biosecurity measures are essential for preventing disease introduction and further spread. In the municipality of Raška, three sheep pox outbreaks were recorded during 2025, and epizootiological investigations indicated that they were epidemiologically linked. Owing to the timely suspicion of disease, rapid laboratory confirmation, and implementation of prescribed control measures, the infection did not spread to surrounding flocks. In one of the three infected holdings, which had previously been defined as a contact holding, the disease was detected 28 days after the last confirmed case in the immediate vicinity. Such a long interval between epidemiologically linked cases indicates the potential importance of indirect transmission and the ability of infectious virus to persist in a contaminated environment, equipment, vehicles, clothing, footwear, or other contaminated materials. The temporal and spatial association of cases in 2025 highlights the need for epizootiological investigations to consider not only direct animal-to-animal contact but also possible indirect routes of transmission. Following sanitation of the third infected holding, preventive depopulation of susceptible animals was carried out in the immediately endangered area. This measure included six flocks comprising a total of 63 sheep. These findings indicate the potential importance of preventive depopulation in epizootiological situations where there is clear evidence, or a strong suspicion, of disease spread within a spatially and epidemiologically defined cluster. Ten months after the municipality of Raška had been declared free from sheep and goat pox, the disease was again diagnosed in August 2026 on one holding within the same municipality. Despite a detailed epizootiological analysis of animal and human movements, movements of products and various goods, contacts between holdings, and other relevant information, the exact route of virus introduction could not be established with certainty. Persistence of the causative agent in the area from the 2025 outbreaks was considered highly unlikely, indicating that the 2026 outbreak represented a new introduction of the virus. Based on the spatial and epizootiological characteristics of disease occurrence, movements of people and animals, husbandry and trade practices involving small ruminants, as well as specific features of life in this border area, one of the epizootiological hypotheses considered was the possible introduction of the causative agent from, or via, the territory of Kosovo and Metohija. However, despite the identification of numerous potential opportunities for introduction, the available epizootiological data did not allow unequivocal confirmation of the route by which the infectious agent entered the area. This circumstance highlights the complexity of epizootiological investigations in border regions, particularly under conditions characterised by intensive movement of people and animals, various forms of formal and informal trade, and an ongoing epizootiological risk associated with the presence of disease in surrounding areas. The differential diagnosis of sheep and goat pox should include several diseases of small ruminants that may present with a similar clinical picture. Of particular importance are peste des petits ruminants, bluetongue, foot-and-mouth disease, contagious ecthyma, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia, pasteurellosis, and other diseases that may be accompanied by fever, respiratory disorders, mucosal lesions, or skin lesions. An additional challenge to the epizootiological situation is the fact that bluetongue was present in the same area during the previous season and may recur during the current season. Furthermore, contagious ecthyma is enzootically present in sheep in this area. Clinical examination is of major importance in raising suspicion of disease; however, because clinical manifestations may overlap, the final diagnosis must be based on appropriate differential diagnostic laboratory testing. Appropriate selection and timely collection of samples are essential for reliable laboratory diagnosis. For direct detection of the causative agent, biopsies of active skin lesions are the most valuable samples, while EDTA blood, nasal, buccal, and ocular swabs are useful during the febrile and early stages of infection. In dead or euthanised animals, lymph nodes, lungs, and tissues showing pathological lesions may be collected, whereas serum is used for serological testing. Genome sequencing can assist in determining the origin of infection, but it cannot by itself establish the route of virus introduction. Isolates obtained in Raška in 2025 and 2026 showed a high degree of similarity to viruses circulating in the region. Monitoring the spatial and...