During retinogenesis, the Xenopus basic helix–loop–helix transcription factor Xath5 has been shown to promote a ganglion cell fate. In the developing mouse and chicken retinas, gene targeting and overexpression studies have demonstrated critical roles for the Brn3 POU domain transcription factor genes in the promotion of ganglion cell differentiation. However, the genetic relationship between Ath5 and Brn3 genes is unknown. To understand the genetic regulatory network(s) that controls retinal ganglion cell development, we analyzed the relationship between Ath5 and Brn3 genes by using a gain-of-function approach in the chicken embryo. We found that during retinogenesis, the chicken Ath5 gene ( Cath5 ) is expressed in retinal progenitors and in differentiating ganglion cells but is absent in terminally differentiated ganglion cells. Forced expression of both Cath5 and the mouse Ath5 gene ( Math5 ) in retinal progenitors activates the expression of cBrn3c following central-to-peripheral and temporal-to-nasal gradients. As a result, similar to the Xath5 protein, both Cath5 and Math5 proteins have the ability to promote the development of ganglion cells. Moreover, we found that forced expression of all three Brn3 genes also can stimulate the expression of cBrn3c . We further found that Ath5 and Brn3 proteins are capable of transactivating a Brn3b promoter. Thus, these data suggest that the expression of cBrn3c in the chicken and Brn3b in the mouse is initially activated by Ath5 factors in newly generated ganglion cells and later maintained by a feedback loop of Brn3 factors in the differentiated ganglion cells.

Targeted gene disruption studies in the mouse have demonstrated crucial roles for the Brn3 POU domain transcription factor genes, Brn3a, Brn3b, Brn3c (now called Pou4f1, Pou4f2, Pou4f3, respectively) in sensorineural development and survival. During mouse retinogenesis, the Brn3b gene is expressed in a large set of postmitotic ganglion cell precursors and is required for their early and terminal differentiation. In contrast, the Brn3a and Brn3c genes, which are expressed later in ganglion cells, appear to be dispensable for ganglion cell development. To understand the mechanism that causes the functional differences of Brn3 genes in retinal development, we employed a gain-of-function approach in the chick embryo. We find that Brn3b(l) and Brn3b(s), the two isoforms encoded by the Brn3b gene, as well as Brn3a and Brn3c all have similar DNA-binding and transactivating activities. We further find that the POU domain is minimally required for these activities. Consequently, we show that all these Brn3 proteins have a similar ability to promote development of ganglion cells when ectopically expressed in retinal progenitors. During chick retinogenesis, cBrn3c instead of cBrn3b exhibits a spatial and temporal expression pattern characteristic of ganglion cell genesis and its misexpression can also increase ganglion cell production. Based on these data, we propose that all Brn3 factors are capable of promoting retinal ganglion cell development, and that this potential may be limited by the order of expression in vivo.

The POU domain transcription factors Brn3a, Brn3b and Brn3c are required for the proper development of sensory ganglia, retinal ganglion cells, and inner ear hair cells, respectively. We have investigated the roles of Brn3a in neuronal differentiation and target innervation in the facial-stato-acoustic ganglion. We show that absence of Brn3a results in a substantial reduction in neuronal size, abnormal neuronal migration and downregulation of gene expression, including that of the neurotrophin receptor TrkC, parvalbumin and Brn3b. Selective loss of TrkC neurons in the spiral ganglion of Brn3a−/− cochlea leads to an innervation defect similar to that of TrkC−/− mice. Most remarkably, our results uncover a novel role for Brn3a in regulating axon pathfinding and target field innervation by spiral and vestibular ganglion neurons. Loss of Brn3a results in severe retardation in development of the axon projections to the cochlea and the posterior vertical canal as early as E13.5. In addition, efferent axons that use the afferent fibers as a scaffold during pathfinding also show severe misrouting. Interestingly, despite the well-established roles of ephrins and EphB receptors in axon pathfinding, expression of these molecules does not appear to be affected in Brn3a−/− mice. Thus, Brn3a must control additional downstream genes that are required for axon pathfinding.

The neurons generated at the germinal rhombic lip undergo long distance migration along divergent pathways to settle in widely dispersed locations within the hindbrain, giving rise to cerebellar granule cells and precerebellar nuclei. Neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) signaling has been shown to be required for proper migration and survival of cerebellar granule cells. The molecular bases that governNT-3expression within the cerebellum, however, remain unknown at present. Here we report that, during early mouse neurogenesis, theBarhl1homeobox gene is highly expressed by the rhombic lip and rhombic lip-derived migratory neurons. Its expression is later restricted to cerebellar granule cells and precerebellar neurons extending mossy fibers, two groups of neurons that synaptically connect in the adult cerebellar system. Loss ofBarhl1function causes cerebellar phenotypes with a striking similarity to those ofNT-3conditional null mice, which include attenuated cerebellar foliation as well as defective radial migration and increased apoptotic death of granule cells. Correlating with these defects, we find thatNT-3expression is dramatically downregulated in granule cells of the posterior lobe ofBarhl1^–/– cerebella. Moreover, in the precerebellar system ofBarhl1^–/–mice, all five nuclei that project mossy fibers fail to form correctly because of aberrant neuronal migration and elevated apoptosis. These results suggest thatBarhl1plays an essential role in the migration and survival of cerebellar granule cells and precerebellar neurons and functionally linkBarhl1to the NT-3 signaling pathway during cerebellar development.

Ears of Brn3c null mutants develop immature hair cells, identifiable only by certain molecular markers, and undergo apoptosis in neonates. This partial development of hair cells could lead to enough neurotrophin expression to sustain sensory neurons through embryonic development. We have therefore investigated in these mutants the patterns of innervation and of expression of known neurotrophins. At birth there is a limited expression of BDNF and NT-3 in the mutant sensory epithelia and DiI tracing shows no specific reduction of afferents or efferents that resembles neurotrophin null mutations. At postnatal day 7/8 (P7/8), innervation is severely reduced both qualitatively and quantitatively. 1% of myosin VIIa-positive immature hair cells are present in the mutant cochlea, concentrated in the base. Around 20% of immature hair cells exist in the mutant vestibular sensory epithelia. Despite more severe loss of hair cells (1% compared to 20%), the cochlea retains many more sensory neurons (46% compared to 15%) than vestibular epithelia. Even 6 months old mutant mice have some fibers to all vestibular sensory epithelia and many more to the cochlear apex which lacks MyoVIIa positive hair cells. Topologically organized central cochlea projections exist at least until P8, suggesting that functional hair cells are not required to establish such projections. The limited expression of neurotrophins in the cochlea of Brn3c null mice suffices to support many sensory neurons, particularly in the cochlea, until birth. The molecular nature of the long term survival of apical spiral neurons remains unclear.