Background The temporal and insular cortex (TC, IC) have been associated with autonomic nervous system (ANS) control and the awareness of emotional feelings from the body. Evidence shows that the ANS and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) regulate exercise performance. Non-invasive brain stimulation can modulate the cortical area directly beneath the electrode related to ANS and RPE, but it could also affect subcortical areas by connection within the cortico-cortical neural networks. This study evaluated the effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the TC on the ANS, RPE and performance during a maximal dynamic exercise. Methods Ten trained cyclists participated in this study (33±9 years; 171.5±5.8 cm; 72.8±9.5 kg; 10–11 training years). After 20-min of receiving either anodal tDCS applied over the left TC (T3) or sham stimulation, subjects completed a maximal incremental cycling exercise test. RPE, heart rate (HR) and R–R intervals (as a measure of ANS function) were recorded continuously throughout the tests. Peak power output (PPO) was recorded at the end of the tests. Results With anodal tDCS, PPO improved by ∼4% (anodal tDCS: 313.2±29.9 vs 301.0±19.8 watts: sham tDCS; p=0.043), parasympathetic vagal withdrawal was delayed (anodal tDCS: 147.5±53.3 vs 125.0±35.4 watts: sham tDCS; p=0.041) and HR was reduced at submaximal workloads. RPE also increased more slowly during exercise following anodal tDCS application, but maximal RPE and HR values were not affected by cortical stimulation. Conclusions The findings suggest that non-invasive brain stimulation over the TC modulates the ANS activity and the sensory perception of effort and exercise performance, indicating that the brain plays a crucial role in the exercise performance regulation.

Background: Aerobic exercise ( AE ) is recommended as first‐line antihypertensive lifestyle therapy based on strong evidence showing that it lowers blood pressure ( BP ) 5 to 7 mm Hg among adults with hypertension. Because of weaker evidence showing that dynamic resistance training ( RT ) reduces BP 2 to 3 mm Hg among adults with hypertension, it is recommended as adjuvant lifestyle therapy to AE training. Yet, existing evidence suggests that dynamic RT can lower BP as much or more than AE . Methods and Results: We meta‐analyzed 64 controlled studies (71 interventions) to determine the efficacy of dynamic RT as stand‐alone antihypertensive therapy. Participants (N=2344) were white (57%), middle‐aged (47.2±19.0 years), and overweight (26.8±3.4 kg/m ² ) adults with prehypertension (126.7±10.3/76.8±8.7 mm Hg); 15% were on antihypertensive medication. Overall, moderate‐intensity dynamic RT was performed 2.8±0.6 days/week for 14.4±7.9 weeks and elicited small‐to‐moderate reductions in systolic BP ( SBP ; d ₊ =−0.31; 95% CI s, −0.43, −0.19; −3.0 mm Hg) and diastolic BP ( DBP ; d ₊ =−0.30; 95% CI s, −0.38, −0.18; −2.1 mm Hg) compared to controls ( P s<0.001). Greater BP reductions occurred among samples with higher resting SBP / DBP : ≈6/5 mm Hg for hypertension, ≈3/3 mm Hg for prehypertension, and ≈0/1 mm Hg for normal BP ( P s<0.023). Furthermore, nonwhite samples with hypertension experienced BP reductions that were approximately twice the magnitude of those previously reported following AE training (−14.3 mm Hg [95% CI s, −19.0, −9.4]/−10.3 mm Hg [95% CI s, −14.5, −6.2]). Conclusions: Our results indicate that for nonwhite adult samples with hypertension, dynamic RT may elicit BP reductions that are comparable to or greater than those reportedly achieved with AE training. Dynamic RT should be further investigated as a viable stand‐alone therapeutic exercise option for adult populations with high BP .

Aerobic exercise training and, to a lesser degree, dynamic resistance training, are recommended to lower blood pressure (BP) among adults with hypertension. Yet the combined influence of these exercise modalities, termed concurrent exercise training (CET), on resting BP is unclear. This study aimed to meta-analyze the literature to determine the efficacy of CET as antihypertensive therapy. Electronic databases were searched for trials that included the following: adults (>19 yr), controlled CET interventions, and BP measured pre- and postintervention. Study quality was assessed with a modified Downs and Black Checklist. Analyses incorporated random-effects assumptions. Sixty-eight trials yielded 76 interventions. Subjects (N = 4110) were middle- to older-age (55.8 ± 14.4 yr), were overweight (28.0 ± 3.6 kg·m−2), and had prehypertension (systolic BP [SBP]/diastolic BP [DBP] = 134.6 ± 10.9/80.7 ± 7.5 mm Hg). CET was performed at moderate intensity (aerobic = 55% maximal oxygen consumption, resistance = 60% one-repetition maximum), 2.9 ± 0.7 d·wk−1 for 58.3 ± 20.1 min per session for 19.7 ± 17.8 wk. Studies were of moderate quality, satisfying 60.7% ± 9.4% of quality items. Overall, CET moderately reduced SBP (db = −0.32, 95% confidence interval [CI] = −0.44 to −0.20, −3.2 mm Hg) and DBP (db = −0.35, 95% CI = −0.47 to −0.22, −2.5 mm Hg) versus control (P < 0.01). However, greater SBP/DBP reductions were observed among samples with hypertension in trials of higher study quality that also examined BP as the primary outcome (−9.2 mm Hg [95% CI = −12.0 to −8.0]/−7.7 mm Hg [95% CI = −14.0 to −8.0]). Among samples with hypertension in trials of higher study quality, CET rivals aerobic exercise training as antihypertensive therapy. Because of the moderate quality of this literature, additional randomized controlled CET trials that examine BP as a primary outcome among samples with hypertension are warranted to confirm our promising findings.