Fossil resources-free sustainable development can be achieved through a transition to bioeconomy, an economy based on sustainable biomass-derived food, feed, chemicals, materials, and fuels. However, the transition to bioeconomy requires development of new energy-efficient technologies and processes to manipulate biomass feed stocks and their conversion into useful products, a collective term for which is biorefinery. One of the technological platforms that will enable various pathways of biomass conversion is based on pulsed electric fields applications (PEF). Energy efficiency of PEF treatment is achieved by specific increase of cell membrane permeability, a phenomenon known as membrane electroporation. Here, we review the opportunities that PEF and electroporation provide for the development of sustainable biorefineries. We describe the use of PEF treatment in biomass engineering, drying, deconstruction, extraction of phytochemicals, improvement of fermentations, and biogas production. These applications show the potential of PEF and consequent membrane electroporation to enable the bioeconomy and sustainable development.

Electrical creation of aqueous pathways across the skin's outer layer [stratum corneum (SC)] provides an approach to transdermal delivery of medium-size water-soluble compounds. However, nerve stimulation should be avoided. Here, we show that a microstructured electrode array can significantly confine the electric field to the nerve-free SC. The prototype electrode-reservoir device (ERD) contains field-confining electrodes and a fluorescent drug surrogate [sulphorhodamine (SR)]. In vivo human experiments at the forearm with approximately rectangular voltage pulses up to 500 V and 1-ms duration cause electroporation as measured by skin resistance change but only rarely caused sensation. Human skin in vitro experiments with such pulses up to 300 V transported SR across the SC. Our results are supported by a model's prediction of the field in the ERD and nearby tissue

The AD5933 [1], a specialized single chip impedance analyzer, made by Analog Devices, is basically not intended for use with four electrode interface. Due to electrochemical phenomena at the electrodes connecting the material under test (MUT), especially in the low frequency region below 100 kHz, a two electrode interface generates considerable errors during the measurement. Thus, for most application in bio-impedance measurement only a four electrode interface can guarantee reliable results. Here we show how a four electrode interface with galvanostatic excitation but also for potentiostatic excitation can be realized by just a few external components.