Mapping the environment is necessary for navigation, planning and manipulation. In this paper, a fusion framework (as data-in-decision-out) is introduced for a 2D LIDAR and a 3D ultrasonic sensor to achieve three-dimensional mapping without expensive 3D LiDAR scanner or visual processing. Two sensor models are proposed for the two sensors used for map updating. Furthermore, 2D/3D map representations are discussed for our fusion approach. We also compare different probabilistic fusion methods and discuss criterias for choosing appropriate methods. Experiments are carried out with a real ground robot platform in an indoor environment. The 2D and 3D map results demonstrate that our approach is able to show the surrounding in more details. Sensor fusion provides a better estimation of the environment and the ego-pose whilst lowering the necessary resources. This gives the robot’s perception of the environment more information by using only one additional low-cost 3D ultrasonic sensor. This is especially important for robust and light-weight robots with limited resources.

This paper compares two positioning systems, namely ultra-wideband (UWB) based micro-location technology and dead reckoning and a RPLidar based simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) solution. This new approach can be used to improve the quality of the positioning system and increase the functionality of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS). This is achieved by using stationary nodes and UWB tags on the vehicles. Thus, the redundancy of localization can be achieved by this approach, e.g., as a backup to onboard sensors like RPlidar or radar. Additionally, UWB based micro-location allows additional data channels to be used for communication purposes. Furthermore, it is shown that the regular use of correction data increases UWB and dead reckoning accuracy. These correction data can be based on onboard sensors. This shows that it is promising to develop a system that fuses onboard sensors and micro-localization for safety-critical tasks like the platooning of commercial vehicles.

UWB is a rapidly developing technology characterised by high positioning accuracy, additional data transferability, and communication security. Low costs and energy demand makes it a system that meets the requirements of smart cities (e.g., smart mobility). The analysis of the positioning accuracy of moving objects requires a ground truth. For the UWB system, it should have an accuracy of the order of millimetres. The generated data can be used to minimize the cost and time needed to perform field tests. However, there is no UWB simulators which can consider the variable characteristics of operation along with distance to reflect the operation of real systems. This article presents a 2D UWB simulator for outdoor open-air areas with obstacles and a method of analysing data from the real UWB system under line-of-sight (LOS) and non-line-of-sight conditions. Data are recorded at predefined outdoor reference distances, and by fitting normal distributions to this data and modelling the impact of position changes the real UWB system can be simulated and it makes it possible to create virtual measurements for other locations. Furthermore, the presented method of describing the path using time-dependent equations and obstacles using a set of inequalities allows for reconstructing the real test scenario with moving tags with high accuracy.

Global Navigation Satellite Systems provide autonomous vehicles with precise position information through the process of position augmentation. This paper presents a series of performance tests aimed to compare the position accuracy of augmentation techniques such as classical Differential Global Navigation Satellite System, Real-time Kinematic and Real-time eXtended. The aim is to understand the limitations and choose the best position augmentation technique in order to obtain accurate, trustworthy position estimates of a vehicle in urban environments. The tests are performed in and around the German cities of Wuppertal and Duesseldorf, using a vehicle fitted with the navigation system POS-LV 220, developed by Applanix Corporation. In order to evaluate the real-time performance of position augmentation techniques in a highly challenging environment, a total of four test regions are selected. The four test regions are characterized mainly by uneven terrain with tall buildings around the University of Wuppertal, flat terrain with roads of varying width in the city centre of Wuppertal and Duesseldorf and flat terrain in a tunnel section located in the city of Wuppertal. The performances of the different position augmentation are compared using a Root Mean Square (RMS) error estimate obtained as an output from the Applanix system. Furthermore, a High-Definition map of the environment is used for the purpose of model validation, which justifies the use of RMS error estimate as an evaluation metric for the performance analysis tests. According to the performance tests carried out as per the conditions specified in this paper, the Real-time eXtended (RTX) position augmentation method enables to obtain a more robust position information of the vehicle than Real-time Kinematic (RTK) method, with a typical accuracy of a few centimeter in an urban environment.

This paper presents an exhaustive review of recent advancements in interference mitigation strategies for automotive radar systems, focusing on the intrinsic characteristics of interference across various radar modulation schemes. It categorizes these strategies into four main groups based on their inherent properties, facilitating a detailed comparative analysis. The primary objective is to enhance understanding in this crucial field and bridge the gap between existing research and comprehensive reviews. Additionally, the paper highlights the practical challenges of implementing these strategies, providing insightful implications for engineering and industry practices. Importantly, it emphasizes the critical role of regulatory agencies and the need for cross-disciplinary collaboration to tackle the challenges associated with interference mitigation effectively.

Investigation in the parametrization of soil modeled with DEM based on measurements in triaxial compression and direct shear tests.