The devastating COVID-19 pandemic forced academia to go virtual. Educational institutions around the world have stressed online learning programs in the aftermath of the pandemic. However, because of insufficient access to Information Communication Technology (ICT), a substantial number of students failed to harness the opportunity of online learning. This study explores the latent digital divide exhibited during the COVID-19 pandemic while online learning activities are emphasised among students of Bangladesh. It also investigates the digital divide exposure and the significant underlying drivers of the divide. In order to accomplish this, a cross-sectional survey was employed to collect quantitative data, mixed with open-ended questions were utilised to gather qualitative information from the student community. The findings revealed that despite the majority of students having physical access to ICT, only 32.5% of students could attend online classes seamlessly. In total, 34.1% reported data prices as the critical barrier, while 39.8% identified poor network infrastructure as the significant barrier preventing them from participating in online learning activities. Although most students possess physical access to various devices and the Internet, they face the first-level digital divide due to the quality of access and price of cellular Internet. Consequently, they fail to take advantage of physical access, resulting in the third-level digital divide (utility gap), which submerges them into a digital divide cycle. The primary objective of this study is to explore the underlying issues of the digital divide among Bangladeshi students. This will assist relevant stakeholders (e.g., the Bangladesh government, educational institutions, and researchers) to gain necessary insights and theoretical understanding of underlying limitations and emergent directions to arrange adequate support for underprivileged students to undertake essential online learning activities.

Massive open online courses (MOOCs) play a significant role in proliferating universal online education regardless of learners’ limitations and backgrounds. Regrettably, the MOOC movement has been challenged by the inequality in accessing essential digital technologies, known as the digital divide. Research has identified multiple forms of digital divide beyond the binary access difference. The evolving forms of the digital divide have been induced in MOOCs due to the access, skill, and outcomes gap, which drives a digital divide cycle. The concept of the multilevel digital divide in MOOCs is a rising concern that demands thoughtful actions by MOOCs stakeholders. This book chapter discusses the intertwined multilevel digital divide and MOOCs and proposes potential solutions to break the digital divide cycle and bridge the gap. Additionally, current MOOCs platforms have digital accessibility issues that hinder learners with disabilities from participating and can result in further inequalities. In order to address the accessibility issues, this chapter describes the application of web content accessibility guidelines and universal design for learning concepts that may assist associated people with MOOCs to bridge the digital divide and promote equitable MOOCs.

University websites are essential platforms for disseminating information and facilitating online education. While existing research has identified accessibility gaps in Oceania’s higher education institutions, there remains a limited understanding of persistent barriers and insufficient continuous evaluation practices. This study addresses these gaps by conducting a two-phase accessibility evaluation (2022–2024) of 42 Australian university websites, employing a multi-method approach integrating automated tools and manual auditing. The findings reveal some improvement, primarily due to a reduction in the number of accessibility errors detected across university websites. However, common issues persist, including missing alternative text, inconsistent heading structures, unclear link and button labels, and elements that are not compatible with screen readers or other assistive technologies. Notably, critical accessibility issues that cannot be reliably detected by automated tools, such as focus visibility, inadequate colour contrast, and poor keyboard navigability, also persist. This study argues that ongoing web inaccessibility may exacerbate educational inequality. Additionally, we examine reasons behind the persistence of specific accessibility barriers and highlight the limitations of solely automated evaluations, illustrating why a hybrid evaluation approach is essential. Acknowledging limitations such as the time-bound nature of the evaluation, this study provides practical recommendations for administrators, developers, and policymakers, offering a robust framework for continuous and comprehensive accessibility assessment. While grounded in the Australian university context, these insights have global relevance for improving web accessibility in higher education institutions worldwide.