A photosynthetic organism is subjected to photo-oxidative stress when more light energy is absorbed than is used in photosynthesis. In the light, highly reactive singlet oxygen can be produced via triplet chlorophyll formation in the reaction centre of photosystem II and in the antenna system. In the antenna, triplet chlorophyll is produced directly by excited singlet chlorophyll, while in the reaction centre it is formed via charge recombination of the light-induced charge pair. Changes of the mid-point potential of the primary quinone acceptor in photosystem II modulate the pathway of charge recombination in photosystem II and influence the yield of singlet oxygen production. Singlet oxygen can be quenched by β-carotene, α-tocopherol or can react with the D1 protein of photosystem II as target. If not completely quenched, it can specifically trigger the up-regulation of the expression of genes which are involved in the molecular defence response of plants against photo-oxidative stress.

The photosynthesizing chloroplast functions as a conditional source of redox and ROS information which tunes processes inside the chloroplast and hence impacts

Loosening of cell walls is an important developmental process in key stages of the plant life cycle, including seed germination, elongation growth, and fruit ripening. Here, we report direct in vivo evidence for hydroxyl radical (·OH)-mediated cell wall loosening during plant seed germination and seedling growth. We used electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy to show that ·OH is generated in the cell wall during radicle elongation and weakening of the endosperm of cress (Lepidium sativum; Brassicaceae) seeds. Endosperm weakening precedes radicle emergence, as demonstrated by direct biomechanical measurements. By 3H fingerprinting, we showed that wall polysaccharides are oxidized in vivo by the developmentally regulated action of apoplastic ·OH in radicles and endosperm caps: the production and action of ·OH increased during endosperm weakening and radicle elongation and were inhibited by the germination-inhibiting hormone abscisic acid. Both effects were reversed by gibberellin. Distinct and tissue-specific target sites of ·OH attack on polysaccharides were evident. In vivo ·OH attack on cell wall polysaccharides were evident not only in germinating seeds but also in elongating maize (Zea mays; Poaceae) seedling coleoptiles. We conclude that plant cell wall loosening by ·OH is a controlled action of this type of reactive oxygen species.

Manganese (Mn) is an essential element, acting as cofactor in numerous enzymes. In particular, a Mn cluster is indispensable for the function of the oxygen-evolving complex of photosystem II. Metal transporters of the Natural Resistance-Associated Macrophage Protein (NRAMP) family have the ability to transport both iron and Mn. AtNRAMP3 and AtNRAMP4 are required for iron mobilization in germinating seeds. The results reported here show that, in adult Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) plants, AtNRAMP3 and AtNRAMP4 have an important role in Mn homeostasis. Vacuolar Mn accumulation in mesophyll cells of rosette leaves of adult nramp3nramp4 double mutant plants was dramatically increased when compared with the wild type. This suggests that a considerable proportion of the cellular Mn pool passes through the vacuole and is retrieved in an AtNRAMP3/AtNRAMP4-dependent manner. The impaired Mn release from mesophyll vacuoles of nramp3nramp4 double mutant plants is associated with reduced growth under Mn deficiency. However, leaf AtNRAMP3 and AtNRAMP4 protein levels are unaffected by Mn supply. Under Mn deficiency, nramp3nramp4 plants contain less functional photosystem II than the wild type. These data are consistent with a shortage of Mn to produce functional photosystem II, whereas mitochondrial Mn-dependent superoxide dismutase activity is maintained under Mn deficiency in both genotypes. The results presented here suggest an important role for AtNRAMP3/AtNRAMP4-dependent Mn transit through the vacuole prior to the import into chloroplasts of mesophyll cells.