For epidemiological studies of infectious diseases, pathogen-specific antibody levels in an area give us essential and appropriate information. The antibodies against pathogens are usually detected in blood, the drawing of which inconveniences people. Collection of blood increases the risk of accidental infections through blood, and it is difficult to obtain the participation of the target populations, especially the younger generation. On the other hand, urine samples, which contain a high enough level of antibodies for ELISA, can be harmlessly and easily collected and therefore have been used for epidemiological studies for diseases. The antibody examination of urine has been used for the epidemiology of parasitic diseases with a high sensitivity and specificity of serum samples. In this paper, we reviewed antibody assays with urine for seven parasitic diseases that urine diagnostic methods have reported in the past, and these are important infections included in NTDs, caused, for example, by Leishmania donovani, Wuchereria bancrofti, Schistosoma japonicum, Paragonimus westermani, Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis, Strongyloides stercoralis, and Opisthorchis viverrini. The easy and safe urine surveillance system might be an admirable tool for future epidemiological studies for infectious diseases.

Surveillance of hidden foci or resurgence of the bancroftian filariasis has high priority to maintain the elimination status in Sri Lanka. For the surveillance, two methods were applied in Matotagama, Matara, Sri Lanka; (i) molecular xenomonitoring (MX) by PCR to detect parasite DNA in the vector, Culex (Cx) quinquefasciatus and (ii) survey of anti-filarial IgG4 in urine samples from schoolchildren. Mosquitoes were collected monthly from index houses for 17 months (2013 to 2014) to confirm the existence of bancroftian parasite. Index houses in Matotagama had recorded microfilaria-positive cases in the recent past. Five schools were selected considering Matotagama as the catchment area and all students who presented on the day were tested for urine anti-filarial IgG4 in 2015. Wuchereria bancrofti DNA in Cx. quinquefasciatus pools were found in 14 of 17 months studied and ranged between 0 and 1.4%. The MX rate was greatly increased at least two times in the year following the driest months (March, August). A total of 735 schoolchildren were tested for urine anti-filarial IgG4. Three schools located closer to the MX area had higher positive rates, 3.4%, 3.6%, and 6.6%. Both highest positive rates of MX and urine were located in a nearer vicinity. Monthly collections to study lymphatic filariasis (LF) transmission by MX was conducted for the first time in Sri Lanka. We observed that the filarial DNA-positive rate had an association with seasonal cycle of precipitation. More than 1% filarial DNA and > 5% anti-filarial antibody rates confirmed ongoing transmission in Matotagama. The combination of two non-invasive surveys, the urine anti-filarial IgG4 levels of schoolchildren and MX of vector mosquitoes, would be a convenient package to monitor the ongoing transmission (hotspots) of LF in the surveillance.