The Water Safety Plan (WSP) methodology, which aims to enhance safety of drinking water supplies, has been recommended by the World Health Organization since 2004. WSPs are now used worldwide and are legally required in several countries. However, there is limited systematic evidence available demonstrating the effectiveness of WSPs on water quality and health. Iceland was one of the first countries to legislate the use of WSPs, enabling the analysis of more than a decade of data on impact of WSP. The objective was to determine the impact of WSP implementation on regulatory compliance, microbiological water quality, and incidence of clinical cases of diarrhea. Surveillance data on water quality and diarrhea were collected and analyzed. The results show that HPC (heterotrophic plate counts), representing microbiological growth in the water supply system, decreased statistically significant with fewer incidents of HPC exceeding 10 cfu per mL in samples following WSP implementation and noncompliance was also significantly reduced (p < 0.001 in both cases). A significant decrease in incidence of diarrhea was detected where a WSP was implemented, and, furthermore, the results indicate that population where WSP has been implemented is 14% less likely to develop clinical cases of diarrhea.

Local sources of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and Chemicals of Emerging Arctic Concern (CEACs) from use in communities, shipping, and industrial activity contribute to contamination as does long-range environmental transport. Increased human activity in the Arctic as the climate warms may enhance the significance of local sources. Furthermore, climate change may lead to secondary sources of POPs and CEACs from existing reservoirs in the Arctic. This review examines the emerging evidence for releases from these secondary sources of formerly deposited POPs and CEACs as the Arctic climate warms and the potential for future releases with increased infrastructure development and economic activity. Arctic permafrost degradation represents an important source of natural and anthropogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and indications exist of releases of POPs related to permafrost thaw, from previous deposition as well as waste sites. Deposition of POPs and some CEACs to Arctic glaciers is relatively well studied while fewer studies explore the impacts of remobilization. Expansion of economic development has the potential for increasing emissions or creating new sources of CEACs in the Arctic. The predicted northward expansion of agriculture, aquaculture, and ship traffic could bring increased emissions of CEACs to northern waters, including pesticides not previously used in the Arctic. Increased industrial chemical use, e.g. fire-fighting foams, flame retardants, lubricant and plastic additives, is likely to occur following the expansion of infrastructure such as airports, seaports, mining, and oil and gas development. While PAHs are relatively well-studied, there is an urgent need for environmental measurements and modelling of emissions of CEACs associated with the expansion of economic activity in the Arctic as well as to predict the future release of legacy POPs from secondary sources, particularly from permafrost.

The aim of this study was to investigate accumulated experience with water safety plans in one of the first countries to adopt systematic preventive management for drinking-water safety. Water utilities in Iceland have had a legal obligation since 1995 to implement a systematic preventive approach to secure safety of drinking water and protect public health. The water utilities responded by implementing either an adapted HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points) model for larger water utilities or a simpler five step model for smaller water utilities. The research was carried out at 16 water utilities that serve about two-thirds of the population of Iceland. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used with the aim of analysing if and what benefits water safety plans bring for water utilities and what is needed for successful implementation and operation of such systems. The results of the study show that numerous benefits and even the process of going through the implementing process were considered to be of advantage and change the attitude of the staff and the utility culture. Some obstacles and shortcomings came to light, such as lack of documentation and lack of regular internal and external audit. There was little communication with the public, although some mentioned that good public relations are important to succeed with water safety plans. Many important elements of success were revealed of which intensive training of staff and participation of staff in the whole process are deemed the most important. It is also important to have simple and well-structured guidelines, and good cooperation with the health authorities.