Wild boar (Sus scrofa) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) are the main large game species hunted in Europe. They can also be a source of zoonotic infections for cohabiting humans. The purpose of this systematic review was to examine the spatiotemporal tendencies and sanitary profiles of surveys on zoonotic diseases of wild boars and red deer in Europe in 15 years (2006–2020). Through the search strategy “((sus scrofa OR wild boar OR cervus elaphus OR red deer) AND (zoonosis OR zoonot* OR infectious disease))” in Pubmed and ScienceDirect databases, 1419 articles were assessed in February of 2021. Pursuing the inclusion criteria: species of interest – wild boar and red deer, established zoonosis and presence of natural infection and the exclusion filters: European study, specified a timeline (2006–2020), printed in English and with open-access. To conduct this systematic review, 194 European surveys issued in indexed journals were included after revising all abstracts and eliminating 323 unrepeated articles.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) surveillance in fecal Escherichia coli isolates from wildlife is crucial for monitoring the spread of this microorganism in the environment and for developing effective AMR control strategies. Wildlife can act as carriers of AMR bacteria and spread them to other wildlife, domestic animals, and humans; thus, they have public health implications. A total of 128 Escherichia coli isolates were obtained from 66 of 217 fecal samples obtained from different wild animals using media without antibiotic supplementation. Antibiograms were performed for 17 antibiotics to determine the phenotypic resistance profile in these isolates. Extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) production was tested using the double-disc synergy test, and 29 E. coli strains were selected for whole genome sequencing. In total, 22.1% of the wild animals tested carried multidrug-resistant E. coli isolates, and 0.93% (2/217) of these wild animals carried E. coli isolates with ESBL-encoding genes (bla_CTX-M-65, bla_CTX-M-55, and bla_EC-1982). The E. coli isolates showed the highest resistance rates to ampicillin and were fully susceptible to amikacin, meropenem, ertapenem, and imipenem. Multiple resistance and virulence genes were detected, as well as different plasmids. The relatively high frequency of multidrug-resistant E. coli isolates in wildlife, with some of them being ESBL producers, raises some concern regarding the potential transmission of antibiotic-resistant bacteria among these animals. Gaining insights into antibiotic resistance patterns in wildlife can be vital in shaping conservation initiatives and developing effective strategies for responsible antibiotic use.

Since April 2011, Portugal has implemented specific national legislation (Notice No. 1/2011), defining “Epidemiologic Risk Areas for Bovine Tuberculosis in Large Game” and mitigation measures in these areas, including Idanha-a-Nova county. A GIS project was created to record information that would allow us to analyse the spatial–temporal distribution, both for hunting bags and tuberculosis occurrence, in hunted wild boar and red deer in Idanha-a-Nova. Hunting bag and tuberculosis-like lesion data were recorded during post-mortem inspection across 11 hunting seasons, totalling 9844 animals. The difference in tuberculosis occurrence for these species was statistically significant in nearly all 11 seasons, with wild boars presenting approximately twice the occurrence of red deer. No significant difference was noted before and after the Notice No. 1/2011 implementation. These results, following GIS-based spatial analysis, enable us to state that both large game species displayed an irregular tuberculosis pattern for the 2006–2016 period, and we identified some specific areas of high risk for both species. Southern areas of the county may be considered the priority for intervention. This research demonstrates the potential of GIS tools to evaluate, in the field, the results and efficacy of legislation such as Notice No. 1/2011, and to ensure the correct implementation of cost-effective mitigation strategies for tuberculosis in large game species.

Background and Aim: Due to the particularities of the first steps of the game food chain, large game species are shot, bled, and handled in collection points (spot of evisceration and initial examination in the field). These steps of the game meat chain affect the microbiological quality of this type of meat, thus posing a risk to consumers. This study aimed to characterize the collection points in terms of central hygiene and biosecurity procedures/requirements. Materials and Methods: One survey with 16 questions was applied in 95 hunting areas throughout Portugal. It was a convenience sample obtained by direct visualization on-spot procedures. Four categories were characterized in the survey: Initial examination (performance assiduity and type of operator performing it), hygiene requirements on-spot (floor, ceiling, water, and electricity), biosecurity procedures such on initial examination (use of personal protective equipment as gloves, glasses, mask, and specific clothes), and by-products disposal (destination and packaging of by-products). Results: Sixty percentage (n = 57) eviscerated the carcasses and performed the initial examination on-spot. Moreover, most of the time (n = 71), the initial examination was carried out by veterinarians. However, the category that showed the best results was those related to the biosecurity procedures on initial examination, mainly with the use of the individual protective material (e.g., regular use of disposal clothes and specific clothes). Concerning the questions about the disposal of by-products, 66 game managers say that this was done correctly (69%), being the majority destination of the inspected carcasses was the burial (64%; n = 47). Conclusion: This survey demonstrates an immediate need in all this problematic of the standardization of hygiene and biosecurity requirements of the collection points, which requires uniform application of rules. There is a lot of resistance and limitations to the inclusion of these requirements in collection points, due to lack of structural and financial conditions. However, training all those involved in the hunting area (hunters, game managers, authorities, etc.) creating rules that promote hunting food security and setting limits on the microbiological criteria of game meat are hot points to consider in the future. Keywords: food safety, good practices, public health.

Concerning large game in Portugal, there is an epidemiological risk area for tuberculosis where the pressure of tuberculosis infection in wild animals is high. Hunters and other people involved in managing carcasses (evisceration and/or initial examination) of these animals should be considered as a high-risk population for sporadic occupational zoonotic infection. This study aims to evaluate and indicate these stakeholders’ main risk practices. The survey was carried out in two phases: a first phase with an anonymous survey to hunters about self-consumption of game meat and carcass handling practices, and a second phase of evaluation in loco of the practices carried out at collection points after driven hunts. As the main results suggested in this study, bad practices and improper handling of hunted carcasses potentially infected with tuberculosis were marked in both phases of the survey, mostly related to the lack of recognition of tuberculosis-like lesions and the non-use of individual protection material, such as gloves and masks. It is evident that stakeholders are interested in learning more about how to perform initial examination properly and what kind of biosecurity measures can be adopted to minimize zoonotic infection risk.