To review pasture species for regions with 465–680 mm average annual rainfall, 22 perennial grasses and herbs were evaluated for pasture establishment and productivity in four states at seven locations where the arrest of groundwater recharge is considered necessary to ameliorate dryland salinity. Species represented introduced and native, temperate and subtropical grasses, chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) and plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.). This report describes establishment and yield; the following paper describes persistence and root characteristics. Yields were measured over 2–3 years except at one site, which suffered severe drought. Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L., cv. Avalon) and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb. = syn. Lolium arundinaceum. (Schreb.) Darbysh., cvv. AU Triumph and Resolute MaxP), cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata L., cv. Porto) and phalaris (Phalaris aquatica L., cv. Holdfast and Australian) were the most productive species, with dry matter (DM) yields of 13.6–15.1 t/ha. For summer growth, Porto and Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana Kunth, cv. Katambora) were the most productive species; relative to Australian in summer, Porto and Katambora produced 41% and 26% more DM, respectively (95% confidence). Perennial ryegrass (cv. Avalon), tall fescue (cv. Resolute MaxP) and chicory (cv. Grouse) were particularly valuable for autumn growth; Avalon was 30% more productive than Australian. Tall fescue (cv. Resolute MaxP) was 32% more productive than Australian in winter. Avalon and AU Triumph were the most productive grasses and herbs in spring. Based on natural rainfall over the 2–3 years of measurement, the mean water use productivity, ignoring any runoff, was 10.5 kg DM/ha.mm for the three most productive species. Apart from kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra Forssk), native grasses gradually established, but over a prolonged period weeping grass (Microlaena stipoides (Labill.) R.Br., cv. Wakefield) was the most rapid. Perennial ryegrass, tall fescue, cocksfoot and phalaris maintained productive yields across a diverse range of soils and climates. Exploration of the diversity within these species in a nationally coordinated program of genetic improvement appears warranted for improving reliability and expanding the zone of adaptation.

Despite their unrivalled value in livestock systems, certain temperate, pasture, legume species and varieties may contain phytoestrogens which can lower flock/herd fertility. Such compounds, whose chemical structure and biological activity resembles that of estradiol-17α, include the isoflavones that have caused devastating effects (some of them permanent) on the fertility of many Australian sheep flocks. While the persistence of old ‘oestrogenic’ ecotypes of subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum) in pasture remains a risk, genetic improvement has been most effective in lowering isoflavone production in Trifolium species; infertility due to ‘clover disease’ has been greatly reduced. Coumestans, which can be produced in Medicago species responding to stress, remain a potential risk in cultivars susceptible to, for example, foliar diseases. In the field, coumestrol is often not detected in healthy vegetative Medicago species. Wide variation in its concentration is influenced by environmental factors and stage of growth. Biotic stress is the most studied environmental factor and, in lucerne/alfalfa (Medicago sativa), it is the major determinant of oestrogenicity. Concentrations up to 90 mg coumestrol/kg (all concentrations expressed as DM) have been recorded for lucerne damaged by aphids and up to 600 mg/kg for lucerne stressed by foliar disease(s). Other significant coumestans, e.g., 4’-methoxy-coumestrol, are usually present at the same time. Concentrations exceeding 2000 mg coumestrol/kg have been recorded in diseased, annual species of Medicago. Oestrogenicity of some Medicago species is also influenced by maturity and senescence. Studies in Israel, North America, Europe, New Zealand and Australia have confirmed that coumestans in lucerne, represent an acute or sub-acute loss of reproductive efficiency in herbivores, e.g., sheep, cattle, and possibly horses. When sufficiently exposed peri-conception, coumestrol, sometimes present in lucerne, be it as pasture, hay, silage, pellets, meal, and sprouts, is associated with what can be an insidious, asymptomatic, infertility syndrome. Most livestock research with oestrogenic lucerne has been conducted with sheep. Ewes may be at risk when the coumestrol concentration in their diet exceeds 25 mg/kg. In studies where lambing was compared for lucerne and a phytoestrogen-free treatment, the mean decrease in lambs born/ewe was 13%; ewes on lucerne, exhibited a lower frequency of multiple births.

The potential adaptation of a range of perennial pasture species to recharge environments in southern Australia is reviewed based on their performance in 20 field nurseries in a nationally coordinated project. Species were also evaluated for their suitability to discharge sites where salt and waterlogging are major restraints. Species are ranked according to their potential to be incorporated into farming systems and the scope for further breeding and selection. Medicago sativa L. (lucerne) was the most persistent of the perennial legumes across a diversity of recharge environments. Lotus corniculatus L. (birdsfoot trefoil) showed the most promise on soils prone to waterlogging. Other legumes that showed potential included Cullen australasicum (Schltdl.) J.W. Grimes (tall verbine) and Lotononis bainesii Baker (lotononis). The herb Chicoriyum intybus L. was superior to M. sativa on more acid soils. Phalaris aquatica L. (phalaris) and summer dormant cultivars of Dactylis glomerata L. (cocksfoot), Festuca arundinacea L. (tall fescue) and Lolium perenne L. (perennial ryegrass) were among the most persistent and productive of the perennial grasses. Further exploitation of temperate perennial grass germplasm with increased summer dormancy should be a priority to increase the role of these grass species in lower rainfall, summer-dry environments. Although difficult to establish, the indigenous grasses Austrodanthonia caespitosa (Gaudich.) H.P. Linder (wallaby grass) and A. richardsonii (Cashmore) H.P. Linder were persistent and showed good recruitment. They should be a priority for low rainfall, low input environments. Other grasses that showed promise were Chloris gayana Kunth (Rhodes grass), Secale montanum Guss. (mountain rye), Microlaena stipoides (Labill.) R. Br. (weeping grass), Ehrhata calcycina Sm. (veldt grass) and Bromus stamineus E. Desv. (grazing brome). For discharge environments, Melilotus siculus (Turra) Vitman ex B.D. Jacks. was one of the most salt tolerant legumes and should be a priority for further development. Medicago polymorpha L. (burr medic) appears underutilised in discharge environments. Increasing the waterlogging tolerance of this moderately salt tolerant species would further enhance its potential. Trifolium michelianum Savi. (balansa clover) owed its success in discharge areas more to ‘salt avoidance’ rather than salt tolerance per se. Melilotus sulcatus Desf., T. tomentosum L. and Lotus tenuis Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd. also had traits that may prove advantageous for discharge environments. Within the pasture grasses, Puccinellia ciliata Bor (pucinellia) was superior at sites prone to waterlogging whereas T. ponticum performed better in moderately drained saline sites.

The main perennial pasture grasses sown in Australia are perennial ryegrass ( Lolium perenne L.), phalaris ( Phalaris aquatica L), tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea L.), and cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata L.). The area of adaptation, and the longevity and yield of these species are likely to improve considerably over the next decade as a result of the activities within the Australian Grass Improvement Program. Recent use of summer‐dormant cultivars of phalaris has proved successful and novel summer‐dormant cultivars of perennial ryegrass and tall fescue will soon be released to commerce. Of these four naturalised species, all but tall fescue have been commonly sown by farmers in Australia for 60–130 years. However, only phalaris has been subjected to detailed and sustained research. Breeders have provided a range of phalaris cultivars for early to late‐season environments with improved seedling vigour, winter growth, and reduced anti‐quality factors. They have also addressed edaphic limitations. Programmes are now in place to improve the other species. This review outlines the aspects of that work directed at improved adaptation to the Australian environment. A limited range of genetic resources has entered evaluation—for all four species. For perennial ryegrass, the collection of local ecotypes is well advanced. Breeding is in progress for all except cocksfoot, and is coordinated within national programmes characterised by nationwide progeny tests, and strategic support research. Significant efforts are being taken—particularly with perennial ryegrass—to strengthen new cultivars via selection for resistance to common pathogens. Progress in the development of biotechnological procedures is expected to facilitate further improvements to the adaptation of perennial grasses to adverse climates.

A highly winter-active cultivar of tall fescue, Melik, was compared with 3 commercial cultivars in a field experiment in South West Victoria. Winter production of Melik was superior to the widely used commercial cultivars (P<0.05). In a second experiment, a selection from a Melik nursery, designated Melik Select, was compared with the summer-active cultivars, Demeter and AU Triumph. Seed blends of Melik Select and Demeter (1:2 or 2:1 mix) were also evaluated and seasonal production was measured under grazing. Over 3 years, the cumulative yield of tall fescue per se was not different between cultivars, despite a 73% increase in winter for Melik Select compared with Demeter (P<0.001). Melik Select produced 55% of its annual yield in winter. For Demeter the winter proportion was 33%. Spring (P<0.01) and summer production (P<0.001) was superior from the summer-active cultivars, Demeter and AU Triumph, when compared with the yield from Melik Select. Melik Select plots were however, characterised by higher contributions from subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.). After 7 years of rotational grazing by sheep, the frequency of Melik Select plants (63%) was greater than that of Demeter (9%) and AU Triumph (8%) (P<0.01). Melik Select exhibited greater crown rust (Puccinia coronata) resistance than Demeter and AU Triumph (P0.05). It was concluded that, while increased cool season production from tall fescue may be obtained by the use of highly winter-active cultivars sown alone, blends of the contrasting types of tall fescue may provide a more even distribution of growth throughout the year. To significantly increase winter growth in the Hamilton climate, however, the highly winter-active component may have to represent >66% of the blend. Options for using Mediterranean type tall fescue for their autumn–winter growth potential are discussed for districts with a shorter growing season. Melik Select was compared against 5 check cultivars, in a 3-year field experiment at Hamilton, to characterise the seasonal growth of 36 Neotyphodium endophyte infected accessions of tall fescue collected from the Mediterranean basin. These accessions contained endophyte variants differing from N. coenophialum, as found in continental winter-dormant types of tall fescue. Ratings confirmed the importance of Mediterranean material as a source of vigorous growth during the cool season. Melik Select was superior to other cultivars and accessions in both the cool and warm seasons. The use of Melik Select to develop and evaluate a new type of highly winter-active tall fescue for temperate Australia, since released as cultivar Fraydo, is discussed.