African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) a parasitic disease of livestock in sub-Saharan Africa causing tremendous loses. Sub-Saharan continental estimation of mean prevalence in both large and small domestic animals, risk factors, tsetse and non-tsetse prevalence and drug resistance is lacking. A review and meta-analysis was done to better comprehend changes in AAT prevalence and drug resistance. Publish/Perish software was used to search and extract peer-reviewed articles in Google scholar, PubMed and CrossRef. In addition, ResearchGate and African Journals Online (AJOL) were used. Screening and selection of articles from 2000–2021 was performed according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). Articles 304 were retrieved; on domestic animals 192, tsetse and non-tsetse vectors 44, risk factors 49 and trypanocidal drug resistance 30. Prevalence varied by, host animals in different countries, diagnostic methods and species of Trypanosoma. Cattle had the highest prevalence with Ethiopia and Nigeria leading, T. congolense (11.80–13.40%) and T. vivax (10.50–18.80%) being detected most. This was followed by camels and pigs. Common diagnostic method used was buffy coat microscopy. However; polymerase chain reaction (PCR), CATT and ELISA had higher detection rates. G. pallidipes caused most infections in Eastern regions while G. palpalis followed by G. mortisans in Western Africa. Eastern Africa reported more non-tsetse biting flies with Stomoxys leading. Common risk factors were, body conditions, breed type, age, sex and seasons. Ethiopia and Nigeria had the highest trypanocidal resistance 30.00–35.00% and highest AAT prevalence. Isometamidium and diminazene showed more resistance with T. congolense being most resistant species 11.00–83.00%.

Background. African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) affects livestock productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. This study aimed to determine cattle AATs prevalence and associated risk factors in Lambwe Valley, Kenya. Methods. In a cross-sectional survey, livestock owners were recruited from four villages of Lambwe in Homa Bay, Kenya. Blood samples were collected from the jugular veins of cattle, and buffy coat smears were examined under a microscope. Parasites were further detected using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Using a semistructured questionnaire, livestock owners were interviewed on their knowledge of AAT and control practices. Chi-square and multilevel models were used for the analysis. Results. The overall prevalence was 15.63 (71/454). Trypanosoma vivax 10.31 and T. congolense Savannah 6.01 were the common species and subspecies. A total of 61 livestock keepers were involved in the study. Of these, 91.80 (56/61) knew AAT, and 90.16 (55/61) could describe the symptoms well and knew tsetse fly bite as transmission mode. Self-treatment (54.09; 33/61) was common, with up to 50.00 of the farmers using drugs frequently. Isometamidium (72.13; 44/61) and diminazene (54.09; 33/61) were drugs frequently used. Although 16.39 (10/61) of the farmers claimed to use chemoprophylactic treatment, 6/10 did not use the right drugs. Animals (92.1; 58/63) with clinical signs had positive infections. Villages closer to the national park recorded a higher prevalence. Infections were higher in cattle owned by those self-treating (27.23; 58/213), those using drug treatment without vector control (27.62; 50/181), those using single-drug therapy, and those practicing communal grazing (20.00; 59/295). Clinical signs strongly associate with positive infections under multilevel modeling. Conclusion. Cattle trypanosomiasis is prevalent in the Lambwe region of Kenya. This is influenced by inappropriate control practices, communal grazing, and the proximity of farms to the national park. In addition, clinical signs of the disease have a strong association with infections.

Tsetse flies are major vectors of trypanosomes in Sub-Saharan Africa, posing risks to livestock and human health. This study investigated the diversity, distribution, and infection rates of tsetse species, as well as the genetic diversity of drug resistance-associated trypanosome strains in Kenya. Flies were collected from Kwale, Taita-Taveta, Kajiado, Narok, and Turkana counties between November 2024 and February 2025. DNA analyses targeting rRNA and transporter genes (TbAT/P2, E6M6, DMT, TcoAde2) identified infections and resistance-associated mutations among 4693 sampled flies. Apparent density was highest in Kwale (101.52 flies/trap/day) and lowest in Turkana (1.18). Species distribution varied by county, with Kwale dominated by G. pallidipes, G. austeni, and G. brevipalpis; Taita-Taveta G. pallidipes, and G. brevipalpis; Kajiado G. pallidipes and G. longipennis; Narok G. pallidipes, G. brevipalpis, G. swynnertoni, and G. longipennis; and Turkana only G. pallidipes. Trypanosoma congolense was most prevalent, especially in Kwale, while T. brucei was common in Kajiado and Kwale. G. brevipalpis, G. austeni, and G. pallidipes showed higher infection risks. Drug resistance-associated T. congolense strains were found in Kwale and Taita-Taveta, with TcoAde2 and E6M6 gene diversity linked to Kenyan isolates. These findings highlight the need for targeted control of high-risk tsetse species and drug-resistant trypanosomes in Kenya.