Plant development processes are regulated by epigenetic alterations that shape nuclear structure, gene expression, and phenotypic plasticity; these alterations can provide the plant with protection from environmental stresses. During plant growth and development, these processes play a significant role in regulating gene expression to remodel chromatin structure. These epigenetic alterations are mainly regulated by transposable elements (TEs) whose abundance in plant genomes results in their interaction with genomes. Thus, TEs are the main source of epigenetic changes and form a substantial part of the plant genome. Furthermore, TEs can be activated under stress conditions, and activated elements cause mutagenic effects and substantial genetic variability. This introduces novel gene functions and structural variation in the insertion sites and primarily contributes to epigenetic modifications. Altogether, these modifications indirectly or directly provide the ability to withstand environmental stresses. In recent years, many studies have shown that TE methylation plays a major role in the evolution of the plant genome through epigenetic process that regulate gene imprinting, thereby upholding genome stability. The induced genetic rearrangements and insertions of mobile genetic elements in regions of active euchromatin contribute to genome alteration, leading to genomic stress. These TE-mediated epigenetic modifications lead to phenotypic diversity, genetic variation, and environmental stress tolerance. Thus, TE methylation is essential for plant evolution and stress adaptation, and TEs hold a relevant military position in the plant genome. High-throughput techniques have greatly advanced the understanding of TE-mediated gene expression and its associations with genome methylation and suggest that controlled mobilization of TEs could be used for crop breeding. However, development application in this area has been limited, and an integrated view of TE function and subsequent processes is lacking. In this review, we explore the enormous diversity and likely functions of the TE repertoire in adaptive evolution and discuss some recent examples of how TEs impact gene expression in plant development and stress adaptation.

Oxidative stress, arising from an imbalance between reactive oxygen species and antioxidant defenses, is a significant contributor to food spoilage and chronic diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular problems, and neurological ailments. This review carefully examines the functions of natural antioxidants sourced from consumable plants in food preservation and as nutraceuticals. We analyzed contemporary research on principal categories of plant-derived antioxidants, encompassing polyphenols, flavonoids, carotenoids, and vitamins, along with their origins, modes of action, and functional attributes. The findings indicate that these natural antioxidants proficiently impede lipid oxidation and microbial proliferation in food systems, while also regulating inflammation and oxidative stress inside the human body. Examples encompass rosemary, green tea, turmeric, and berries, in addition to new superfoods. Technological advancements, including nanoencapsulation and eco-friendly extraction methods, enhance the stability and bioavailability of these substances. Our analysis determines that plant-derived antioxidants present considerable potential as sustainable and health-enhancing substitutes for synthetic additives; however, issues concerning bioavailability, regulatory obstacles, and consumer perception must be resolved to fully harness their capacity in mitigating chronic disease risk.