The role of immune cells associated with sporotrichosis caused by Sporothrix schenckii is not yet fully clarified. Macrophages through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) can recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) of Sporothrix, engulf it, activate respiratory burst, and secrete pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory biological mediators to control infection. It is important to consider that the characteristics associated with S. schenckii and/or the host may influence macrophage polarization (M1/M2), cell recruitment, and the type of immune response (1, 2, and 17). Currently, with the use of new monocyte-macrophage cell lines, it is possible to evaluate different host–pathogen interaction processes, which allows for the proposal of new mechanisms in human sporotrichosis. Therefore, in order to contribute to the understanding of these host–pathogen interactions, the aim of this review is to summarize and discuss the immune responses induced by macrophage-S. schenckii interactions, as well as the PRRs and PAMPs involved during the recognition of S. schenckii that favor the immune evasion by the fungus.

Traditional techniques for cancer diagnosis, such as nuclear magnetic resonance, ultrasound and tissue analysis, require sophisticated devices and highly trained personnel, which are characterized by elevated operation costs. The use of biomarkers has emerged as an alternative for cancer diagnosis, prognosis and prediction because their measurement in tissues or fluids, such as blood, urine or saliva, is characterized by shorter processing times. However, the biomarkers used currently, and the techniques used for their measurement, including ELISA, western-blot, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or immunohistochemistry, possess low sensitivity and specificity. Therefore, the search for new proteomic, genomic or immunological biomarkers and the development of new noninvasive, easier and cheaper techniques that meet the sensitivity and specificity criteria for the diagnosis, prognosis and prediction of this disease has become a relevant topic. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview about the search for new cancer biomarkers, including the strategies that must be followed to identify them, as well as presenting the latest advances in the development of biosensors that possess a high potential for cancer diagnosis, prognosis and prediction, mainly focusing on their relevance in lung, prostate and breast cancers.

Sporothrix schenckii modulates the expression of its cell wall proteins (CWPs) in response to reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by the phagocytic cells of the human host, which allows it to evade and escape the immune system. In this study, we performed a comparative proteomic analysis of the CW of S. schenckii after exposure and nonexposure to H₂O₂. Several CWPs involved in CW remodeling and fungal pathogenesis that modulated their expression in response to this oxidizing agent were identified, as were a number of antioxidant enzymes and atypical CWPs, called moonlighting proteins, such as the Hsp70-5, lipase 1 (Lip1), enolase (Eno), and pyruvate kinase (Pk). Moreover, RT-qPCR assays demonstrated that the transcription of genes HSP70-5, LIP1, ENO, and PK is regulated in response to the oxidant. The results indicated that S. schenckii differentially expressed CWPs to confer protection against ROS upon this fungus. Furthermore, among these proteins, antioxidant enzymes and interestingly, moonlighting-like CWPs play a role in protecting the fungus from oxidative stress (OS), allowing it to infect human host cells.

Oxidative stress is key in immune defense against fungal infections, such as those caused by Sporothrix schenckii, the dimorphic fungus responsible for sporotrichosis. Phagocytic cells utilize oxidative stress as a crucial mechanism to control pathogen spread. During S. schenckii infection, phagocytic cells recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) on their surface through conserved transmembrane or soluble receptors, known as pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). This recognition triggers a cascade of immune responses, including the generation reactive oxygen species (ROS) essential for pathogen elimination. However, S. schenckii has developed sophisticated mechanisms to evade and counteract this response, contributing to its persistence in the host. These mechanisms include the production of antioxidant enzymes, alterations to its cell wall (CW), and the production of melanin, which helps neutralize oxidative stress. In addition, S. schenckii modulates the production of other proteins, such as moonlighting proteins, suggested to have roles in immune evasion and stress response, helping its survival in the host. These strategies, along with the modulation of gene expression, allow the fungus to survive and persist inside the immune system’s hostile environment, facilitating the progression of the infection. Understanding these interactions between phagocytic cells and S. schenckii is key to developing more effective therapeutic strategies to combat sporotrichosis.

In this research, the bio-oxidative capacity of three acidophilic bacterial strains (Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans, Leptospirillum ferriphilum, and an unidentified native consortium) are analyzed through the dissolution of cyanicidal species in a polymetallic sulfide mineral mainly composed of pyrite, quartz, sphalerite, and chalcocite. The main objective is the reduction in the amount of sodium cyanide used for the recovery of Au and Ag for the improvement of economic and environmental benefits in the processing of these minerals. Additionally, through a 2³ factorial experimental design, the effect of pH and pulp density (%) on bio-oxidation is evaluated. The results reveal that the bio-oxidation process of the mineral sulfide concentrate has been favored at low pH values and pulp density, favoring Cu species above all dissolution, which form stable complexes with cyanide, leading to excessive cyanide consumption. Therefore, at pH = 1.0 and pulp density of 10%, the catalytic activity of Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans achieves 73.30% Cu, 19.92% Pb, 57.37% Zn, and 25.17% Fe dissolution at the flask level and 83.18% Cu, 12.18% Pb, 55.36% Zn, and 40.98% Fe dissolution at the bioreactor level, allowing the dissolution of 89.5% and 80.4% of Au and Ag, respectively.

Candida albicans is an opportunistic fungus capable of forming biofilms that are resistant to conventional antifungal treatments. This study evaluated the antibiofilm activity of an ethanolic extract from Mexican oregano (Lippia graveolens Kunth) stem and its impact on the protein composition of the C. albicans cell wall (CW). The proteomic analysis was restricted to the adherent cells that persisted after treatment, representing the more tolerant subpopulation. First, the biofilm-forming capacity of 18 clinical isolates was characterized. Subsequently, the effect of the Lippia graveolens Kunth stem extract on biofilm formation was assessed in clinical isolates of C. albicans with high and moderate biofilm-forming capacities. The results showed an MIC₉₀ of 16 mg/mL against C. albicans isolates in planktonic growth. Furthermore, the extract exhibited an antibiofilm effect, showing a 77% inhibition in the highly biofilm-forming C. albicans 2400H strain at 1.6 mg/mL. To assess how the extract influences CW composition, we analyzed the CW proteome of the adherent biofilm cells of C. albicans that persisted after exposure to the stem extract. Mass spectrometry identified 1006 total proteins, where 156 were up-regulated, and 94 were down-regulated. Of the differentially expressed proteins, we identify 40 CW proteins (CWP’s) associated with dimorphic transition, adhesion, oxidative stress, and biofilm formation. These findings provide the potential of the L. graveolens Kunth stem as a natural antifungal agent against C. albicans biofilms. In addition, we identified CWP’s associated with tolerance to the extract’s antibiofilm activity, offering mechanistic insight into persistence and potential targets for improving antibiofilm interventions.