We investigated antibiotic resistance profiles of Escherichia coli among 960 samples obtained from chickens (236), humans (243), rodents (101) and soil (290). E. coli was isolated from 650 (67.7%) samples. Isolation frequency varied significantly between chickens, humans, rodents and soil samples, being 81.6%, 86.5%, 79.2% and 31.0%, respectively (p < 0.001). Resistance rates were particularly higher against imipenem (79.8%), cefotaxime (79.7%) and tetracycline (73.7%) and moderate against amoxicillin-clavulanate (49.4%). Overall, 78.8% of the isolates were multidrug-resistant (MDR) among which, 38.8%, 25.1%, 12.9% and 2.5% exhibited resistance to three, four, five and six different classes of antibiotics, respectively. Multidrug-resistant E. coli were observed in 27.7%, 30.3%, 10.8% and 10.0% of the isolates from chickens, humans, rodents and soil samples, respectively. Our results show high levels of antimicrobial resistance including MDR in E. coli isolated from chickens, humans, rodents and soil samples in Karatu, Northern Tanzania. Comprehensive interventions using a one-health approach are needed and should include improving (i) awareness of the community on judicious use of antimicrobial agents in humans and animals, (ii) house conditions and waste management and (iii) rodent control measures.

The interaction of rodents with humans and chicken in the household environment can facilitate transmission of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Escherichia coli (E. coli), causing infections that are difficult to treat. We investigated the presence of genes encoded for carbapenem, extended spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL), tetracycline and quinolones resistance, and virulence among 50 MDR E. coli isolated from human (n = 14), chicken (n = 12), rodent (n = 10), and soil (n = 14) samples using multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Overall, the antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) detected were: blaTEM 23/50 (46%), blaCTX-M 13/50 (26%), tetA 23/50 (46%), tetB 7/50 (14%), qnrA 12/50 (24%), qnrB 4/50 (8%), blaOXA-48 6/50 (12%), and blaKPC 3/50 (6%), while blaIMP, blaVIM, and blaNDM-1 were not found. The virulence genes (VGs) found were: ompA 36/50 (72%), traT 13/50 (26%), east 9/50 (18%), bfp 5/50 (10%), eae 1/50 (2%), and stx-1 2/50 (4%), while hlyA and cnf genes were not detected. Resistance (blaTEM, blaCTX-M, blaSHV, tetA, tetB, and qnrA) and virulence (traT) genes were found in all sample sources while stx-1 and eae were only found in chicken and rodent isolates, respectively. Tetracycline resistance phenotypes correlated with genotypes tetA (r = 0.94), tetB (r = 0.90), blaKPC (r = 0.90; blaOXA-48 (r = 0.89), and qnrA (r = 0.96). ESBL resistance was correlated with genotypes blaKPC (r = 0.93), blaOXA-48 (r = 0.90), and qnrA (r = 0.96) resistance. Positive correlations were observed between resistance and virulence genes: qnrB and bfp (r = 0.63) also blaTEM, and traT (r = 0.51). Principal component analysis (PCA) indicated that tetA, tetB, blaTEM, blaCTX-M, qnrA, and qnrB genes contributed to tetracycline, cefotaxime, and quinolone resistance, respectively. While traT stx-1, bfp, ompA, east, and eae genes contributed to virulence of MDR E. coli isolates. The PCA ellipses show that isolates from rodents had more ARGs and virulence genes compared to those isolated from chicken, soil, and humans.

We conducted this study to investigate the isolation frequency and phenotypic antibiotic resistance pattern of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from rodents, chickens, humans, and household soils. Specimens were plated onto mannitol salt agar (Oxoid, Basingstoke, UK) and incubated aerobically at 37 °C for 24 h. Presumptive colonies of S. aureus were subjected to Gram staining, as well as catalase, deoxyribonuclease (DNAse), and coagulase tests for identification. Antibiotic susceptibility testing was performed by using the Kirby–Bauer disc diffusion method on Mueller–Hinton agar (Oxoid, Basingstoke, UK). The antibiotics tested were tetracycline (30 μg), erythromycin (15 μg), gentamicin (10 μg), ciprofloxacin (5 μg), clindamycin (2 μg), and amoxicillin-clavulanate (20 μg/10 μg). The S. aureus strain American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) 25,923 was used as the standard organism. We found that 483 out of 956 (50.2%) samples were positive for S. aureus. The isolation frequencies varied significantly between samples sources, being 52.1%, 66.5%, 74.3%, and 24.5%, respectively, in chickens, humans, rodents, and soil samples (p < 0.001). S. aureus isolates had high resistance against clindamycin (51.0%), erythromycin (50.9%), and tetracycline (62.5%). The overall prevalence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) S. aureus isolates was 30.2%, with 8.7% resistant to at least four different classes of antibiotics.

Enhancing Teachers' Continuous Professional Development in Tanzania: Challenges, Strategic Interventions, and Regional Comparisons

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a critical global health threat, impacting human, animal, and environmental health. Pigs act as significant reservoirs for multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens; however, there is limited data regarding their role in AMR transmission in Tanzania. This study synthesizes existing data on the prevalence, resistance profiles, and genetic determinants of MDR pathogens in pigs, assesses transmission pathways and evaluates Tanzania’s AMR policies in comparison to regional and global strategies. A systematic review of peer-reviewed literature, government reports, and case studies focuses on MDR bacteria, including Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., Enterococcus spp., and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). E. coli demonstrated a prevalence of up to 73.1% and 51.6% multidrug resistance, while Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp. exhibited notable resistance to tetracyclines, beta-lactams, and quinolones. Key resistance genes, such as blaCTX-M, tetM, ermB, mecA, and vanA, were identified, highlighting the potential for horizontal gene transfer and zoonotic transmission. Major AMR transmission routes include direct contact, foodborne exposure, and environmental contamination. Tanzania’s AMR surveillance in pig farming is limited, with weak enforcement of antibiotic regulations and the absence of a coordinated national monitoring system. Comparative policy analysis reveals significant gaps, calling for stricter antibiotic control, improved AMR monitoring, and public education. A One Health approach is crucial, integrating veterinary, public health, and environmental interventions. Strengthening regional collaboration and aligning Tanzania’s AMR policies with global standards is essential to effectively combat the growing AMR threat.

Background: Milk from various animal species is increasingly recognized not only as a nutritional food but also as a functional therapeutic resource due to its rich bioactive compounds. However, disparities exist globally regarding awareness, consumption patterns, and industrial utilization of medicinal milk, particularly in Tanzania and Sub-Saharan Africa. Objective: This meta-analysis synthesizes current literature on the medicinal potential of milk, focusing on the types of bioactive compounds, their therapeutic applications, consumption trends, regional awareness, and policy strategies that offer practical lessons for Tanzania. Methods: A systematic search was conducted across the PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect databases, targeting studies published between 2010 and 2024. Data on bioactive compounds, therapeutic efficacy, consumption prevalence, and regional practices were extracted and synthesized. A comparative analysis was performed for Tanzania, East Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, and global regions. Results: Lactoferrin, immunoglobulins, insulin-like proteins, bioactive peptides, and probiotics are the most studied compounds in cow, goat, camel, sheep, and buffalo milk. Camel milk has demonstrated significant glycemic control effects, with fasting blood glucose reduction ranging from 9% to 18% in diabetic patients. Awareness of milk’s medicinal potential remains low in Tanzania (∼10%) compared to Kenya (30%), Ethiopia (40%), and Europe (>70%). The industrial extraction of bioactive (e.g., lactoferrin) is limited in Sub-Saharan Africa but well-established in Europe, Asia, and Oceania. Conclusion: Tanzania presents significant untapped potential for integrating medicinal milk into its public health and dairy development strategies. Urgent multi-sectoral efforts focusing on awareness campaigns, research investment, dairy innovation, and policy reforms are essential.