There are many challenges facing the development of high-yielding, nutritious crops for future environments. One limiting factor is generation time, which prolongs research and plant breeding timelines. Recent advances in speed breeding protocols have dramatically reduced generation time for many short-day and long-day species by optimizing light and temperature conditions during plant growth. However, winter crops with a vernalization requirement still require up to 6-10 weeks in low-temperature conditions before the transition to reproductive development. Here, we tested a suite of environmental conditions and protocols to investigate whether the vernalization process can be accelerated. We identified a vernalization method consisting of exposing seeds at the soil surface to an extended photoperiod of 22 h day:2 h night at 10°C with transfer to speed breeding conditions that dramatically reduces generation time in both winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) and winter barley (Hordeum vulgare). Implementation of the speed vernalization protocol followed by speed breeding allowed the completion of up to five generations per year for winter wheat or barley, whereas only two generations can be typically completed under standard vernalization and plant growth conditions. The speed vernalization protocol developed in this study has great potential to accelerate biological research and breeding outcomes for winter crops.

Background: In flowering plants, precise timing of the floral transition is crucial to maximize chances of reproductive success, and as such, this process has been intensively studied. FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) and TERMINAL FLOWER1 (TFL1) have been identified as closely related eukaryotic phosphatidylethanolamine-binding proteins (‘EuPEBPs’) that integrate multiple environmental stimuli, and act antagonistically to determine the optimal timing of the floral transition. Extensive research has demonstrated that FT acts similar to hormonal signals, being transported in the phloem from its primary site of expression in leaves to its primary site of action in the shoot meristem; TFL1 also appears to act as a mobile signal. Recent work implicates FT, TFL1, and the other members of the EuPEBP family, in the control of other important processes, suggesting that the EuPEBP family may be key general regulators of developmental transitions in flowering plants. In eudicots, there are a small number of EuPEBP proteins, but in monocots, and particularly grasses, there has been a large, but uncharacterized expansion of EuPEBP copy number, with unknown consequences for the EuPEBP function. Results: To systematically characterize the evolution of EuPEBP proteins in flowering plants, and in land plants more generally, we performed a high-resolution phylogenetic analysis of 701 PEBP sequences from 208 species. We refine previous models of EuPEBP evolution in early land plants, demonstrating the algal origin of the family, and pin-pointing the origin of the FT/TFL1 clade at the base of monilophytes. We demonstrate how a core set of genes (MFT1, MFT2, FT, and TCB) at the base of flowering plants has undergone differential evolution in the major angiosperm lineages. This includes the radical expansion of the FT family in monocots into 5 core lineages, further re-duplicated in the grass family to 12 conserved clades. Conclusions: We show that many grass FT proteins are strongly divergent from other FTs and are likely neo-functional regulators of development. Our analysis shows that monocots and eudicots have strongly divergent patterns of EuPEBP evolution.

Temperature is a critical environmental signal in the regulation of plant growth and development. The temperature signal varies across a daily 24 h period, between seasons and stochastically depending on local environmental events. Extracting important information from these complex signals has led plants to evolve multiple temperature responsive regulatory mechanisms at the molecular level. In temperate cereals, we are starting to identify and understand these molecular mechanisms. In addition, we are developing an understanding of how this knowledge can be used to increase the robustness of crop yield in response to significant changes in local and global temperature patterns. To enable this, it is becoming apparent that gene regulation, regarding expression and post-transcriptional regulation, is crucial. Large transcriptomic studies are identifying global changes in spliced transcript variants and regulatory non-coding RNAs in response to seasonal and stress temperature signals in many of the cereal crops. Understanding the functions of these variants and targets of the non-coding RNAs will greatly increase how we enable the adaptation of crops. This review considers our current understanding and areas for future development.

Since its first cultivation, hexaploid wheat has evolved, allowing for its widespread cultivation and contributing to global food security. The identification of adaptive genes, such as vernalization and photoperiod response genes, has played a crucial role in optimizing wheat production, being instrumental in fine-tuning flowering and reproductive cycles in response to changing climates and evolving agricultural practices. While these adaptive genes have expanded the range of variation suitable for adaptation, further research is needed to understand their mechanisms, dissect the pathways involved, and expedite their implementation in breeding programs. By analyzing data across different environments and over time, Meta-QTL analysis can help identify novel genomic regions and facilitate the discovery of new candidate genes. This chapter reports on two previously unknown Meta-QTL regions, highlighting the potential for further exploration in this field. Moving forward, it will be increasingly important to expand our understanding of how genetic regions influence not only flowering time but also other developmental traits and their responses to environmental factors. Advances in gene-based modeling hold promise for describing growth and development processes using QTL and other genomic loci analysis. Integrating these findings into process-based crop models can provide valuable insights for future research. Overall, the study of adaptive genes and their impact on wheat production represents a vital area of research that continues to contribute to global food security.

There are many challenges facing the development of high-yielding, nutritious crops for future environments. One limiting factor is generation time, which prolongs research and plant breeding timelines. Recent advances in speed breeding protocols have dramatically reduced generation time for many short-day and long-day species by optimising light and temperature conditions during plant growth. However, winter crops with a vernalisation requirement still require up to 6–10 weeks in low-temperature conditions before transition to reproductive development. Here, we tested a suite of environmental conditions and protocols to investigate if vernalisation can be satisfied more efficiently. We identified a vernalisation method consisting of exposing seeds at the soil surface to an extended photoperiod of 22 h day:2 h night at 10°C with transfer to speed breeding conditions that dramatically reduces generation time in both winter wheat ( Triticum aestivum ) and winter barley ( Hordeum vulgare ). Implementation of this protocol achieved up to five generations per year for winter wheat or barley, instead of the two typically obtained under standard vernalisation and plant growth conditions. The protocol has great potential to enhance training and to accelerate research, pre-breeding, and breeding outcomes focussed on winter crop improvement.