Bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2) activates unfolded protein response (UPR) transducers, such as PERK and OASIS, in osteoblast cells. ATF6, a bZIP transcription factor, is also a UPR transducer. However, the involvement of ATF6 in BMP2-induced osteoblast differentiation has not yet been elucidated. In the present study, BMP2 treatment was shown to markedly induce the expression and activation of ATF6 with an increase in alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and OC expression in MC3T3E1 cells. In contrast, ATF6 activation by BMP2 was not observed in the Runx2^−/− primary calvarial osteoblasts, and Runx2 overexpression recovered BMP2 action. BMP2 stimulated ATF6 transcription by enhancing the direct binding of Runx2 to the osteoblast-specific cis-acting element 2 (OSE2, ACCACA, −205 to −200 bp) motif of the Atf6 promoter region. In addition, the overexpression of ATF6 increased the Oc promoter activity by enhancing the direct binding to a putative ATF6 binding motif (TGACGT, −1126 to −1121 bp). The inhibition of ATF6 function with the dominant negative form of ATF6 (DN-ATF6) blocked BMP2- or Runx2-induced OC expression. Interestingly, OASIS, which is structurally similar to ATF6, did not induce Oc expression. ALP and Alizarin red staining results confirmed that BMP2-induced matrix mineralization was also dependent on ATF6 in vitro. Overall, these results suggest that BMP2 induces osteoblast differentiation through Runx2-dependent ATF6 expression, which directly regulates Oc transcription.

Supplementation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) at sites of bone resorption is required for bone homeostasis because of the non-proliferation and short lifespan properties of the osteoblasts. Calcium ions (Ca²⁺) are released from the bone surfaces during osteoclast-mediated bone resorption. However, how elevated extracellular Ca²⁺ concentrations would alter MSCs behavior in the proximal sites of bone resorption is largely unknown. In this study, we investigated the effect of extracellular Ca²⁺ on MSCs phenotype depending on Ca²⁺ concentrations. We found that the elevated extracellular Ca²⁺ promoted cell proliferation and matrix mineralization of MSCs. In addition, MSCs induced the expression and secretion of osteopontin (OPN), which enhanced MSCs migration under the elevated extracellular Ca²⁺ conditions. We developed in vitro osteoclast-mediated bone resorption conditions using mouse calvaria bone slices and demonstrated Ca²⁺ is released from bone resorption surfaces. We also showed that the MSCs phenotype, including cell proliferation and migration, changed when the cells were treated with a bone resorption-conditioned medium. These findings suggest that the dynamic changes in Ca²⁺ concentrations in the microenvironments of bone remodeling surfaces modulate MSCs phenotype and thereby contribute to bone regeneration.

Osteoblasts and adipocytes are differentiated from common mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in processes which are tightly controlled by various growth factors, signaling molecules, transcriptional factors and microRNAs. Recently, chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter-transcription factor II (COUP-TFII) was identified as a critical regulator of MSC fate. In the present study, we aimed to identify some microRNAs (miR), which target COUP-TFII, and to determine the effects on MSCs fate. During osteoblastic or adipocytic differentiation from MSCs lineage cells, miR-194 expression was found to be reversal. In the cultures of mesenchymal C3H10T1/2 and primary bone marrow stromal cells, osteogenic stimuli increased miR-194 expression with accompanying decreases in COUP-TFII expression, whereas adipogenic stimuli reduced miR-194 expression with accompanying increases in COUP-TFII expression. A luciferase assay with COUP-TFII 3′-untranslated region (UTR) reporter plasmid, including the miR-194 binding sequences, showed that the introduction of miR-194 reduced the luciferase activity. However, it did not affect the activity of mutated COUP-TFII 3′-UTR reporter. Enforced expression of miR-194 significantly enhanced osteoblast differentiation, but inhibited adipocyte differentiation by decreasing COUP-TFII mRNA and protein levels. In contrast, inhibition of the endogenous miR-194 reduced matrix mineralization in the MSCs cultures, promoting the formation of lipid droplets by rescuing COUP-TFII expression. Furthermore, overexpression of COUP-TFII reversed the effects of miR-194 on the cell fates. Taken together, our results showed that miR-194 acts as a critical regulator of COUP-TFII, and can determinate the fate of MSCs to differentiate into osteoblasts and adipocytes. This suggests that miR-194 and COUP-TFII may be good target molecules for controlling bone and metabolic diseases.

Estrogen receptor-related receptor γ (ERRγ/ERR3/NR3B3) is a member of the orphan nuclear receptor with important functions in development and homeostasis. Recently it has been reported that ERRα is involved in osteoblast differentiation and bone formation. In the present study we examined the role of ERRγ in osteoblast differentiation. Here, we showed that ERRγ is expressed in osteoblast progenitors and primary osteoblasts, and its expression is increased temporarily by BMP2. Overexpression of ERRγ reduced BMP2-induced alkaline phosphatase activity and osteocalcin production as well as calcified nodule formation, whereas inhibition of ERRγ expression significantly enhanced BMP2-induced osteogenic differentiation and mineralization, suggesting that endogenous ERRγ plays an important role in osteoblast differentiation. In addition, ERRγ significantly repressed Runx2 transactivity on osteocalcin and bone sialoprotein promoters. We also observed that ERRγ physically interacts with Runx2 in vitro and in vivo and competes with p300 to repress Runx2 transactivity. Notably, intramuscular injection of ERRγ strongly inhibited BMP2-induced ectopic bone formation in a dose-dependent manner. Taken together, these results suggest that ERRγ is a novel negative regulator of osteoblast differentiation and bone formation via its regulation of Runx2 transactivity.