Microbial resistance to classical antibiotics and its rapid progression have raised serious concern in the treatment of infectious diseases. Recently, many studies have been directed towards finding promising solutions to overcome these problems. Phytochemicals have exerted potential antibacterial activities against sensitive and resistant pathogens via different mechanisms of action. In this review, we have summarized the main antibiotic resistance mechanisms of bacteria and also discussed how phytochemicals belonging to different chemical classes could reverse the antibiotic resistance. Next to containing direct antimicrobial activities, some of them have exerted in vitro synergistic effects when being combined with conventional antibiotics. Considering these facts, it could be stated that phytochemicals represent a valuable source of bioactive compounds with potent antimicrobial activities.

The extensive usage of antibiotics and the rapid emergence of antimicrobial-resistant microbes (AMR) are becoming important global public health issues. Many solutions to these problems have been proposed, including developing alternative compounds with antimicrobial activities, managing existing antimicrobials, and rapidly detecting AMR pathogens. Among all of them, employing alternative compounds such as phytochemicals alone or in combination with other antibacterial agents appears to be both an effective and safe strategy for battling against these pathogens. The present review summarizes the scientific evidence on the biochemical, pharmacological, and clinical aspects of phytochemicals used to treat microbial pathogenesis. A wide range of commercial products are currently available on the market. Their well-documented clinical efficacy suggests that phytomedicines are valuable sources of new types of antimicrobial agents for future use. Innovative approaches and methodologies for identifying plant-derived products effective against AMR are also proposed in this review.

In this article, bone cells and their intercellular communications have been reviewed. Gap junctions and hemichannels are the main routes of interactions in bone tissue. They play a substantial role in survival and cell death, since pro-apoptotic signals can propagate through them. Different adhesion molecules are required for apoptosis, particularly caspase family as well as noncaspase proteases. The disruption outcome of apoptosis could result in bone-related diseases such as osteonecrosis. Anti-apoptotic strategies include inhibition of caspase, poly [ADP-ribose] polymerase (PARP), and Bcl-2 proteins as well as induction of the PKB/Akt pathway and inhibitors of apoptosis (IAP) family of proteins. Thus, understanding the mechanism of apoptosis gives detailed insights of anti-apoptotic molecular targets. Based on these targets, different treatments were designed and produced such as estrogen replacement therapy, administration of different bisphosphonates, raloxifene, calcitonin, sodium fluoride, calcium, and vitamin D. As a result, new applicable drugs for treatment of related bone problems can be proposed for clinical approach especially in the early stage of diseases.