Higher sulfate concentration in Kuwait’s irrigation water poses serious risks to plant health, as many crops have limited tolerance for such high levels. The study is the first attempt in Kuwait to address the elevated sulfate concentrations in the clastic aquifer of northern Kuwait through numerical modeling and geochemical techniques. The geochemical analytical results reveal that groundwater in northern Kuwait is alkaline, with ion abundances in the order of Na⁺ > Ca²⁺ > Mg²⁺ > K⁺ and Cl⁻ > SO₄²⁻ > NO₃⁻ > HCO₃⁻. Sulfate concentrations range from 1200 to 3865 mg/L, with the highest levels found in areas near agricultural zones, raising concerns about the viability of this groundwater for consumption and irrigation without treatment. A likely impact of anthropogenic influence due to the application of fertilizers is observed due to the good correlation between NO₃⁻ and SO₄²⁻. Sulfide oxidation and sulfate mineral weathering also increase the concentration of SO₄²⁻ ions in groundwater. Apart from oxidation, the inferences from geochmical modeling indicate dissolution as due to the undersaturation states of major sulfate minerals (gypsum/anhydrite). Numerical simulations further confirmed that the groundwater chemistry is driven by mineral dissolution, ion exchange, and anthropogenic influences, with key calibrated parameters including a longitudinal dispersivity of 10 m, an adsorption coefficient of 1 × 10⁻⁶ [1/(mg/L)], and a chemical reaction rate of 5 × 10⁻⁵ [1/day]. These findings underscore the critical need to manage sulfate levels in the aquifer to prevent adverse effects on water quality and usability, offering essential guidance for developing sustainable water management practices in northern Kuwait.

Water shortages in the domestic and agricultural sectors across strategic regions of the Middle East are increasingly driven by the combined effects of climate change—characterized by frequent droughts and flash floods—along with rapid population growth, urban expansion, and agricultural intensification. The Eocene aquifer plays a critical role in meeting water demands, supplying domestic and agricultural water in Palestine and supporting agriculture and oil exploration in Kuwait. However, the aquifer’s productivity potential in both countries remains under-researched with sufficient details. This study develops a comprehensive mathematical modelling approach to evaluate the productivity of the Eocene aquifer in two distinct contexts: rainfall patterns in the Nablus District (Palestine) and hydraulic properties of aquifers in Kuwait. Long-term spring discharge and rainfall data were collected to construct a monthly multivariate model that correlates spring discharge with rainfall, incorporating lagged inputs. The results demonstrate the model's statistical significance (p < 0.01), confirming that Eocene aquifer productivity is strongly influenced by rainfall variability. These findings indicate that rainfall fluctuations can be used effectively to predict spring discharge, providing valuable insights for future water resource planning. Additionally, data from wells tapping the Eocene (Dammam) aquifer in Kuwait were successfully analysed, establishing a clear relationship between aquifer productivity, transmissivity, and specific well discharges. This study offers a crucial framework for optimizing the sustainable use of the Eocene aquifer under varying climatic and hydraulic conditions in the Middle East. Also, this study directly contributes to the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals, particularly SDG 6: “Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.“