The Korean government implemented a smoking ban at square floor area of ≥150 m², rather than <150 m², restaurants and pubs from July 2013. This study examined the effects of the smoking regulations in restaurants and pubs in terms of the air quality, biomarker levels and health effects on staff. Particulate matter smaller than 2.5 µm (PM_2.5) was measured in 146 facilities before and 1 month after the ban. The urinary cotinine and 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1- butanol (NNAL) levels were measured in 101 staff members at 77 facilities before and 1 month after the ban. We also measured self-reported respiratory and sensory symptoms on both phases. Of the 146 facilities, 121 facilities were included in the PM_2.5 analysis. In ≥150 m² pubs, the indoor PM_2.5 concentration was significantly reduced after the ban (p < .05). While the urinary cotinine concentrations of the staff in all facilities were not changed after the ban, the total NNAL concentrations of the staff in ≥150 m² pubs were significantly reduced after the ban (p < .05). The health effects on staff show that only sensory symptoms significantly improved in ≥150 m² facilities after the ban (p < .05). The smoking ban significantly reduced the levels of PM_2.5 and total NNAL concentrations in ≥150 m² pubs and improved sensory health among staff in ≥150 m² facilities. The results of this study can be useful in supporting an expansion of the smoking ban in all indoor places, including <150 m² restaurants and pubs.

Antimicrobial chemicals are used in a variety of household and personal care products. Exposure to antimicrobial household products has been hypothesized to lead to allergic diseases in children. We investigated antimicrobial household product exposure and allergic symptoms in Korean children. An antimicrobial exposure (AE) score was derived. To examine the symptoms of allergic diseases (current wheeze, current rhinitis, and current eczema) in the past 12 months, we used a questionnaire based on the core module of the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Children. Complete data for the analysis were available for 25,805 of the 35,590 (72.5%) children. The prevalence of current allergic diseases was as follows: wheeze, 5.6%; allergic rhinitis, 32.6%; and eczema, 17.7%. The mean (standard deviation) AE score was 14.3 (9.3) (range: 0-40). Compared with subjects with a low AE score (reference), subjects with a high AE score (fourth quartile) were more likely to have symptoms of wheezing and allergic rhinitis (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] for wheezing 1.24, 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.05-1.45, p for trend=0.24; aOR for allergic rhinitis 1.30, 95% CI, 1.20-1.40, p<0.01). These findings suggest that frequent use of antimicrobial household products was associated with current wheeze and current allergic rhinitis.

We measured PM_2.5 in 41 underground shopping districts (USDs) in the Seoul metropolitan area from June to November 2017, and associated 18 trace elements to determine the sources and assess the respiratory risks. The PM_2.5 concentrations were 18.0 ± 8.0 μg/m³ inside USDs, which were lower than 25.2 ± 10.6 μg/m³ outside. We identified five sources such as indoor miscellanea, soil dust, vehicle exhaust/cooking, coal combustion, and road/subway dust, using factor analysis. Almost 67% of the total trace element concentration resulted from soil dust. Soil dust contribution increased with the number of stores because of fugitive dust emissions due to an increase in passers-by. Vehicle exhaust/cooking contribution was higher when the entrances of the USDs were closed, whereas coal combustion contribution was higher when the entrances of the USDs were open. Although miscellanea and coal combustion contributions were 3.4% and 0.7%, respectively, among five elements with cancer risk, Cr and Ni were included in miscellanea, and Pb, Cd, and As were included in coal combustion. The excess cancer risk (ECR) was the highest at 67 × 10⁻⁶ for Cr, and the ECR for Pb was lower than 10⁻⁶, a goal of the United States Environmental Protection Agency for hazardous air pollutants.