Overuse of antibiotics is the main force driving the emergence and dissemination of bacterial resistance in the community. France consumes more antibiotics and has the highest rate of beta-lactam resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae than any other European country. In 2001, the government initiated “Keep Antibiotics Working”; the program's main component was a campaign entitled “Les antibiotiques c'est pas automatique” (“Antibiotics are not automatic”) launched in 2002. We report the evaluation of this campaign by analyzing the evolution of outpatient antibiotic use in France 2000–2007, according to therapeutic class and geographic and age-group patterns. This evaluation is based on 2000–2007 data, including 453,407,458 individual reimbursement data records and incidence of flu-like syndromes (FLSs). Data were obtained from the computerized French National Health Insurance database and provided by the French Sentinel Network. As compared to the preintervention period (2000–2002), the total number of antibiotic prescriptions per 100 inhabitants, adjusted for FLS frequency during the winter season, changed by −26.5% (95% confidence interval [CI] −33.5% to −19.6%) over 5 years. The decline occurred in all 22 regions of France and affected all antibiotic therapeutic classes except quinolones. The greatest decrease, −35.8% (95% CI −48.3% to −23.2%), was observed among young children aged 6–15 years. A significant change of −45% in the relationship between the incidence of flu-like syndromes and antibiotic prescriptions was observed. The French national campaign was associated with a marked reduction of unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions, particularly in children. This study provides a useful method for assessing public-health strategies designed to reduce antibiotic use.

Antibiotic misuse in lower- and middle-income countries (LMICs) contributes to the development of antibiotic resistance that can disseminate globally. Strategies specific to LMICs that seek to reduce antibiotic misuse by humans, but simultaneously improve antibiotic access, have been proposed. However, most approaches to date have not considered the growing impact of animal and environmental reservoirs of antibiotic resistance, which threaten to exacerbate the antibiotic resistance crisis in LMICs. In particular, current strategies do not prioritize the impacts of increased antibiotic use for terrestrial food-animal and aquaculture production, inadequate food safety, and widespread environmental pollution. Here, we propose new approaches that address emerging, One Health challenges.

Studies with animal models have suggested the possibility of interactions between parasites during concurrent infections and have raised the question of a similar phenomenon in humans. The present survey was undertaken to assess the impact of urinary schistosomiasis on the susceptibility of children to malaria. It was carried out in Senegal between September 2001 and March 2002 among 523 children 3–15 years of age. We tested the association between Plasmodium falciparum densities and the load of Schistosoma haematobium egg excretion using a linear mixed model because data were not independent. After controlling for age, sex, and season, we showed that children lightly infected with S. haematobium (1–9 eggs/10 mL of urine) had lower P. falciparum densities than those not infected (β = −0.34, 95% confidence interval = −0.85, −0.10), suggesting a negative interaction between both parasites.

The association between placental malaria (PM) and first peripheral parasitaemias in early infancy was assessed in Tori Bossito, a rural area of Benin with a careful attention on transmission factors at an individual level. Statistical analysis was performed on 550 infants followed weekly from birth to 12 months. Malaria transmission was assessed by anopheles human landing catches every 6 weeks in 36 sampling houses and season defined by rainfall. Each child was located by GPS and assigned to the closest anopheles sampling house. Data were analysed by survival Cox models, stratified on the possession of insecticide-treated mosquito nets (ITNs) at enrolment. Among infants sleeping in a house with an ITN, PM was found to be highly associated to first malaria infections, after adjusting on season, number of anopheles, antenatal care (ANC) visits and maternal severe anaemia. Infants born from a malaria infected placenta had a 2.13 fold increased risk to present a first malaria infection than those born from a non infected placenta ([1.24–3.67], p<0.01) when sleeping in a house with an ITN. The risk to present a first malaria infection was increased by 3.2 to 6.5, according to the level of anopheles exposure (moderate or high levels, compared to the absence of anopheles). First malaria infections in early childhood can be attributed simultaneously to both PM and high levels of exposure to infected anopheles. Protective measures as Intermittent Preventive Treatment during pregnancy (IPTp) and ITNs, targeted on both mothers and infants should be reinforced, as well as the research on new drugs and insecticides. In parallel, investigations on placental malaria have to be strengthened to better understand the mechanisms involved, and thus to protect adequately the infants high risk group.

The temporal and spatial association of meningococcal disease and influenza-like syndrome (ILS) was assessed from surveillance data on these diseases in France for a 6-year period (19851990). Using time series methods to account for the usual seasonal pattern of meningococcal disease, the incidence of meningococcal disease in a given week was found to be linked to incidence of ILS in the 5 previous weeks but not to that in subsequent weeks. Geographic spread of meningococcal disease correlated with spread of ILS. This study also suggests that meningococcal disease is more severe for a 2-month period during and after an ILS epidemic: The proportion of cases with purpura fulminans increased by 24% and those resulting in death by 26% during this period. No shift in the age distribution was observed. When an ILS epidemic is identified, medical practitioners should be informed of the likelihood of an increased incidence and severity of meningococcal disease.