Phytocannabinoids, a diverse group of naturally occurring compounds extracted from the Cannabis plant, have attracted interest due to their potential pharmacological effects and medicinal uses. This comprehensive review presents the intricate pharmacological profiles of phytocannabinoids while exploring the diverse impacts these substances have on biological systems. From the more than one hundred cannabinoids which were identified in the Cannabis plant so far, cannabidiol (CBD) and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) are two of the most extensively studied phytocannabinoids. CBD is a non-psychoactive compound, which exhibits potential anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and anxiolytic properties, making it a promising candidate for a wide array of medical conditions. THC, known for its psychoactive effects, possesses analgesic and antiemetic properties, contributing to its therapeutic potential. In addition to THC and CBD, a wide range of additional phytocannabinoids have shown intriguing pharmacological effects, including cannabichromene (CBC), cannabigerol (CBG), and cannabinol (CBN). The endocannabinoid system, made up of the enzymes involved in the production and breakdown of endocannabinoids, cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2), and endogenous ligands (endocannabinoids), is essential for preserving homeostasis in several physiological processes. Beyond their effects on the endocannabinoid system, phytocannabinoids are studied for their ability to modify ion channels, neurotransmitter receptors, and anti-oxidative pathways. The complex interaction between phytocannabinoids and biological systems offers hope for novel treatment approaches and lays the groundwork for further developments in the field of cannabinoid-based medicine. This review summarizes the state of the field, points out information gaps, and emphasizes the need for more studies to fully realize the therapeutic potential of phytocannabinoids.

Chitosan (CS), a versatile biopolymer obtained through the deacetylation of chitin, has gained significant interest in biomedical and pharmaceutical applications due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, and unique gel-forming capabilities. This review comprehensively analyzes CS-based gel development, covering its extraction from various natural sources, gelation mechanisms, and biomedical applications. Different extraction methods, including chemical, biological, and green techniques, are discussed regarding efficiency and sustainability. The review explores the physicochemical properties of CS that influence its gelation behavior, highlighting various gelation mechanisms such as physical, ionic, and chemical cross-linking. Recent advances in gel formation, including Schiff base reactions, Diels–Alder click chemistry, and thermosensitive gelation, have expanded the applicability of CS hydrogels. Furthermore, CS-based gels have demonstrated potential in wound healing, tissue engineering, drug delivery, and antimicrobial applications, offering controlled drug release, enhanced biocompatibility, and tunable mechanical properties. The incorporation of nanomaterials, bioactive molecules, and functional cross-linkers has further improved hydrogel performance. The current review underscores the growing significance of CS-based gels as innovative biomaterials in regenerative medicine and pharmaceutical sciences.

Autophagy and mitophagy are critical cellular processes that maintain homeostasis by removing damaged organelles and promoting cellular survival under stress conditions. In the context of diabetic kidney disease, these mechanisms play essential roles in mitigating cellular damage. This review provides an in-depth analysis of the recent literature on the relationship between autophagy, mitophagy, and diabetic kidney disease, highlighting the current state of knowledge, existing research gaps, and potential areas for future investigations. Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is traditionally defined as a specific form of kidney disease caused by long-standing diabetes, characterized by the classic histological lesions in the kidney, including mesangial expansion, glomerular basement membrane thickening, nodular glomerulosclerosis (Kimmelstiel–Wilson nodules), and podocyte injury. Clinical markers for DN are albuminuria and the gradual decline in glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is a broader and more inclusive term, for all forms of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in individuals with diabetes, regardless of the underlying pathology. This includes patients who may have diabetes-associated kidney damage without the typical histological findings of diabetic nephropathy. It also accounts for patients with other coexisting kidney diseases (e.g., hypertensive nephrosclerosis, ischemic nephropathy, tubulointerstitial nephropathies), even in the absence of albuminuria, such as a reduction in GFR.

Diuretics are a class of pharmacological agents that promote the renal excretion of water and electrolytes, increasing urine output and reducing fluid retention. They play a critical role in the management of edematous syndromes, irrespective of their etiology (cardiac, renal, or hepatic), as well as in the treatment of hypertension (HTA). The mechanism of action of diuretics can be classified as either renal, as seen with saluretic diuretics that inhibit sodium and water reabsorption at various segments of the nephron, or extrarenal, involving alterations in the glomerular filtration pressure or osmotic mechanisms. Based on their site of action and mechanism, diuretics are categorized into multiple classes, including loop diuretics, thiazide and thiazide-like diuretics, potassium-sparing diuretics, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, and osmotic diuretics. These agents are frequently used in combination with other antihypertensive or heart failure medications to optimize therapeutic efficacy. By reducing the blood volume and peripheral vascular resistance, diuretics improve cardiac function, lower blood pressure, and enhance exercise tolerance. Additionally, they are employed in managing chronic kidney disease (CKD), electrolyte imbalances, and specific metabolic disorders. Given the potential for adverse effects such as electrolyte disturbances and renal dysfunction, diuretic therapy should be individualized, with the careful monitoring of the dosage, patient response, and comorbid conditions. Patient education on adherence, lifestyle modifications, and the recognition of side effects is essential for optimizing the therapeutic outcomes and minimizing the risks associated with diuretic therapy.

Neuropathic pain (NeP) is a complex and debilitating condition that impacts millions of people globally. Although various treatment options exist, their effectiveness is often limited, and they can be accompanied by significant side effects. In recent years, there has been increasing interest in targeting the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) as a potential therapeutic approach to alleviate different types of neuropathic pain. This narrative review aims to provide a comprehensive examination of NMDAR antagonists, specifically ketamine, memantine, methadone, amantadine, carbamazepine, valproic acid, phenytoin, dextromethorphan, riluzole, and levorphanol, in the management of NeP. By analyzing and summarizing current preclinical and clinical studies, this review seeks to evaluate the efficacy of these pharmacologic agents in providing adequate relief for NeP.

The review explores the critical role of chirality in the pharmacology of antidepressant drugs, focusing on how the stereochemistry of these compounds influences their biological activity and therapeutic outcomes. Antidepressants, especially modern classes such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), often possess chiral centers that result in enantiomers with distinct pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic profiles. The review systematically examines various chiral antidepressants, including racemic mixtures and enantiomerically pure drugs, highlighting the differential effects of each enantiomer on neurotransmitter reuptake inhibition and the potential clinical implications. By examining specific examples of chiral antidepressants, the review illustrates the differences in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics between enantiomers and racemic mixtures, emphasizing the clinical advantages of using enantiomerically pure compounds. Understanding and leveraging chirality in drug design and therapy is crucial for optimizing antidepressant treatments, offering insights into future research directions that could enhance patient outcomes by tailoring medication more precisely to individual biological profiles.