Understanding the biological mechanisms underlying tick resistance in cattle holds the potential to facilitate genetic improvement through selective breeding. Genome wide association studies (GWAS) are popular in research on unraveling genetic determinants underlying complex traits such as tick resistance. To date, various studies have been published on single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with tick resistance in cattle. The discovery of SNPs related to tick resistance has led to the mapping of associated candidate genes. Despite the success of these studies, information on genetic determinants associated with tick resistance in cattle is still limited. This warrants the need for more studies to be conducted. In Africa, the cost of genotyping is still relatively expensive; thus, conducting GWAS is a challenge, as the minimum number of animals recommended cannot be genotyped. These population size and genotype cost challenges may be overcome through the establishment of collaborations. Thus, the current review discusses GWAS as a tool to uncover SNPs associated with tick resistance, by focusing on the study design, association analysis, factors influencing the success of GWAS, and the progress on cattle tick resistance studies.

The African Journal of Primary Health & Family Medicine welcomes submissions that encourage scholarly exchange between family medicine and primary health care researchers and practitioners across Africa and the developing world, whilst providing a contextual and holistic view of family medicine as practiced across the continent.

Background: Parent–child dysfunctional interaction (PCDI) has been linked to poor child neurodevelopment and adverse outcomes. In South Africa, little is known about how dysfunctional parent–child dynamics and difficult child (DC) behaviours contribute to developmental delays. Aim: To examine the prevalence of elevated PCDI and DC scores and their association with early neurodevelopmental outcomes. Setting: The research was conducted in rural Limpopo province of South Africa. Methods: This cross-sectional analysis used data collected when children in the ‘Birth-to-2’ trial were 17 months old. PCDI and DC were measured using the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form (PSI™-4-SF). Clinically elevated scores (PCDI >27; DC > 33) were analysed in relation to neurodevelopmental outcomes assessed using the Caregiver-Reported Early Development Instruments (CREDI) tool. Results: The analysis included 178 mother–child pairs. At 17 months, 16.3% had clinically elevated PCDI scores and 28.7% had elevated DC scores. The trial arm showed no association with PCDI or DC scores. Higher PCDI scores were significantly associated with poorer cognitive outcomes, while higher DC scores were linked to poorer social-emotional development. Conclusion: Negative parent–child interactions and DC behaviours were associated with poorer early neurodevelopment. These findings underscore the importance of early interventions that strengthen parent–child relationships and address structural barriers such as poverty and limited access to child support grants. Further research should explore these pathways and develop context-specific support strategies for rural families. Contribution: This study adds to evidence on parent–child interactions, DC behaviours and neurodevelopment in rural South Africa. It highlights psychosocial and structural factors associated with developmental outcomes and informs context-specific interventions in rural Limpopo.