Identification of B-cell epitopes is a fundamental step for development of epitope-based vaccines, therapeutic antibodies, and diagnostic tools. Epitope-based antibodies are currently the most promising class of biopharmaceuticals. In the last decade, in-depth in silico analysis and categorization of the experimentally identified epitopes stimulated development of algorithms for epitope prediction. Recently, various in silico tools are employed in attempts to predict B-cell epitopes based on sequence and/or structural data. The main objective of epitope identification is to replace an antigen in the immunization, antibody production, and serodiagnosis. The accurate identification of B-cell epitopes still presents major challenges for immunologists. Advances in B-cell epitope mapping and computational prediction have yielded molecular insights into the process of biorecognition and formation of antigen-antibody complex, which may help to localize B-cell epitopes more precisely. In this paper, we have comprehensively reviewed state-of-the-art experimental methods for B-cell epitope identification, existing databases for epitopes, and novel in silico resources and prediction tools available online. We have also elaborated new trends in the antibody-based epitope prediction. The aim of this review is to assist researchers in identification of B-cell epitopes.

Neurological manifestations caused by neuroinvading pathogens are typically attributed to penetration of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and invasion o

The increasing number of infections caused by multidrug-resistant and pandrug-resistant bacteria represents a serious worlwide problem. Drug resistance limits available antimicrobials and can lead to suboptimal treatment of bacterial infections. It can be predicted that resistance to more antimicrobial drugs will be acquired by even more bacteria in the future. Among the distinct resistance strategies, preventing drug entrance to intracellular compartment through modification of membrane permeability (bacterial influx) and active export of compounds to the external environment (bacterial efflux) are of particular importance as they limit the interaction of the drug with its intracellular targets and, consequently, its deleterious effects on the cell. Several current studies have extended our understanding of drug resistance mechanisms associated with altered membrane permeability in gram-negative bacteria. In this study, we propose a summary of resistance mechanisms associated with transport of drugs across bacterial cell envelope exploited by Klebsiella pneumoniae , one of the most common nosocomial infection-causing pathogens. The better understanding of molecular bases of drug transport in/out of the single cell may have consequence for success in antimicrobial therapy of infection caused by drug-resistant Klebsiella .

Lyme borreliosis is the most widespread vector-borne disease in temperate zones of Europe and North America. Although the infection is treatable, the symptoms are often overlooked resulting in infection of the neuronal system. In this work we uncover the underlying molecular mechanism of borrelial translocation across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). We demonstrate that neuroinvasive strain of Borrelia readily crosses monolayer of brain-microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) in vitro and BBB in vivo. Using protein-protein interaction assays we found that CD40 of BMECs and OspA of Borrelia are the primary molecules in transient tethering of Borrelia to endothelium. OspA of neuroinvasive Borrelia, but not of non-neuroinvasive strain, binds CD40. Furthermore, only the neuroinvasive Borrelia and its recombinant OspA activated CD40-dependent pathway in BMECs and induced expression of integrins essential for stationary adhesion. Demonstration of the CD40-ligand interactions may provide a new possible perspective on molecular mechanisms of borrelial BBB translocation process.

Lyme borreliosis (LB), caused by Borrelia burgdorferi (B.b.), is the most frequently diagnosed tick-borne zoonosis in temperate zones of the Northern hemisphere. Borrelia is unique among bacteria in its ability to express a wide variety of lipoproteins on its surface, which play an essential role in pathogenesis. Surface proteins of spirochetes are important virulence determinants, immune evasion molecules and adaptation factors in the transmission and interaction with host tissues. Vast diversity in the expressed surface proteome of Borrelia in different niches and multifunctionality of proteins are the major strategies of Borrelia to avoid the destructive effect of immune system. In this review we provide deep insight into the protein:protein interactions that take place between different stages of life of Borrelia. Precise knowledge of surface proteins may help in improvement of the vaccines as well as for therapeutic agents against borreliosis.