Hypoxia is a crucial factor in tumor biology, affecting various solid tumors to different extents. Its influence spans both early and advanced stages of cancer, altering cellular functions and promoting resistance to therapy. Hypoxia reduces the effectiveness of radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy, making it a target for improving therapeutic outcomes. Despite extensive research, gaps persist, necessitating the exploration of new chemical and pharmacological interventions to modulate hypoxia-related pathways. This review discusses the complex pathways involved in hypoxia and the associated pharmacotherapies, highlighting the limitations of current treatments. It emphasizes the potential of nanoparticle-based platforms for delivering anti-hypoxic agents, particularly oxygen (O₂), to the tumor microenvironment. Combining anti-hypoxic drugs with conventional cancer therapies shows promise in enhancing remission rates. The intricate relationship between hypoxia and tumor progression necessitates novel therapeutic strategies. Nanoparticle-based delivery systems can significantly improve cancer treatment efficacy by targeting hypoxia-associated pathways. The synergistic effects of combined therapies underscore the importance of multimodal approaches in overcoming hypoxia-mediated resistance. Continued research and innovation in this area hold great potential for advancing cancer therapy and improving patient outcomes.

Lung diseases continue to draw considerable attention from biomedical and public health care agencies. The lung with the largest epithelial surface area is continuously exposed to the external environment during exchanging gas. Therefore, the chances of respiratory disorders and lung infections are overgrowing. This review has covered promising and opportunistic etiologic agents responsible for lung infections. These pathogens infect the lungs either directly or indirectly. However, it is difficult to intervene in lung diseases using available oral or parenteral antimicrobial formulations. Many pieces of research have been done in the last two decades to improve inhalable antimicrobial formulations. However, very few have been approved for human use. This review article discusses the approved inhalable antimicrobial agents (AMAs) and identifies why pulmonary delivery is explored. Additionally, the basic anatomy of the respiratory system linked with barriers to AMA delivery has been discussed here. This review opens several new scopes for researchers to work on pulmonary medicines for specific diseases and bring more respiratory medication to market.

South Africa currently has the highest number of cases of HIV in the world. HIV antiretrovirals (ARVs) are publicly available across the country to address this crisis. However, a consequence of widely available ARVs has been the diversion of these drugs for recreational usage in a drug cocktail commonly known as “nyaope” or “whoonga,” which poses a significant public health concern. To better understand nyaope, we conducted a systematic review investigating the risks and consequences associated with its usage. Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, searches were conducted in eight different databases and screened thereafter. Articles were eligible for inclusion if they included analysis of least one nyaope user and considered either demographics, risk factors, or consequences of usage. Data extracted included study characteristics and limitations, as well as demographic factors, risk factors for usage in the general population, and consequences. Quality assessments were performed using the Joanna Briggs Institute’s tools. Searches produced a total of 228 articles and, after screening, a total of 19 articles were eligible for inclusion. There was a pooled total of 807 nyaope users, all in South Africa. Major risk factors for usage were being male, unemployed, not completing secondary education, pressure from peer groups, having HIV, prior use of cannabis, and to a lesser extent, usage of other substances such as alcohol and tobacco. While young adults tend to be at high-risk, evidence indicates that adolescents are also at-risk. Consequences of usage include high rates of infection, cortical atrophy, depression, and addiction. Addiction was shown to lead to individuals stealing from friends and family to pay for the drugs. HIV-positive nyaope users were more likely to partake in risk behaviours and tended to have high viral loads. Nyaope’s rise has been linked to many health and social issues. Considering that this may also disrupt HIV control efforts in South Africa, there is an urgent need to address the rise of nyaope.