The present study found that ∼80 million people in India, ∼60 million people in Pakistan, ∼70 million people in Bangladesh, and ∼3 million people in Nepal are exposed to arsenic groundwater contamination above 10 μg/L, while Sri Lanka remains moderately affected. In the case of fluoride contamination, ∼120 million in India, >2 million in Pakistan, and ∼0.5 million in Sri Lanka are exposed to the risk of fluoride above 1.5 mg/L, while Bangladesh and Nepal are mildly affected. The hazard quotient (HQ) for arsenic varied from 0 to 822 in India, 0 to 33 in Pakistan, 0 to 1,051 in Bangladesh, 0 to 582 in Nepal, and 0 to 89 in Sri Lanka. The cancer risk of arsenic varied from 0 to 1.64 × 1−1 in India, 0 to 1.07 × 10−1 in Pakistan, 0 to 2.10 × 10−1 in Bangladesh, 0 to 1.16 × 10−1 in Nepal, and 0 to 1.78 × 10−2 in Sri Lanka. In the case of fluoride, the HQ ranged from 0 to 21 in India, 0 to 33 in Pakistan, 0 to 18 in Bangladesh, 0 to 10 in Nepal, and 0 to 10 in Sri Lanka. Arsenic and fluoride have adverse effects on animals, resulting in chemical poisoning and skeletal fluorosis. Adsorption and membrane filtration have demonstrated outstanding treatment outcomes.

Electric vehicles and renewable energy sources are crucial in advancing sustainable transportation systems in developing countries. The environmental performance of electric vehicles largely depends on the electricity mix used during their use phase. Given the evolving energy landscape in developing countries, a comprehensive and dynamic assessment is essential to provide precise insights for consumers and policymakers. Therefore, this study conducts a comparative life cycle assessment of battery electric vehicles (BEV) in the top 10 electric vehicle-selling developing countries for current (2023) and future (2030) electricity mix scenarios. The global warming potential was assessed for 150,000 vehicle km travelled (VKT) as a functional unit. The results indicate that Brazil consistently exhibits the lowest life cycle GWP impact of approximately 18,000 kg CO₂-eq in both 2023 and 2030, mainly due to its high reliance on hydropower. Conversely, BEVs operating under South Africa’s 2023 electricity mix show the highest GWP impact (39320 kg CO₂-eq), largely due to the country’s heavy dependence on coal-based power generation. In the 2030 electricity mix scenario, Malaysia emerges as the country with the highest GWP impact (29650 kg CO₂-eq), followed closely by Indonesia (29300 kg CO₂-eq). While Brazil has already met the global average GWP target of 130 g CO₂-eq/VKT, only a few countries, such as India, Vietnam, and Turkey, are expected to approach this target. Eventually, the outcomes of the study will provide valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders aiming to maximize the sustainability of electric mobility.