Saxitoxin (STX) is a neurotoxin produced by dinoflagellates in diverse species, such as Alexandrium spp., and it causes paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) in humans after the ingestion of contaminated shellfish. Recent studies have suggested that the immune functions of bivalves could be affected by harmful algae and/or by their toxins. Herein, hemocytes are the main effector cells of the immune cellular response. In this study, we evaluated the response of hemocytes from the mussel Mytilus chilensis to STX exposure in a primary culture. Cell cultures were characterized according to size and complexity, while reactive oxygen species (ROS) production was evaluated using a dichlorofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) assay. Finally, phagocytic activity was measured using both flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy assays. Additionally, gene transcription of candidate genes was evaluated by qPCR assays. The results evidenced that exposures to different concentrations of STX (1–100 nM) for 24 h did not affect cell viability, as determined by an MTT assay. However, when hemocytes were exposed for 4 or 16 h to STX (1–100 nM), there was a modulation of phagocytic activity and ROS production. Moreover, hemocytes exposed to 100 nM of STX for 4 or 16 h showed a significant increase in transcript levels of genes encoding for antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT), mitochondrial enzymes (COI, COIII, CYTB, ATP6, ND1) and ion channels (K⁺, Ca²⁺). Meanwhile, C-type lectin and toll-like receptor genes revealed a bi-phase transcriptional response after 16 and 24–48 h of exposure to STX. These results suggest that STX can negatively affect the immunocompetence of M. chilensis hemocytes, which were capable of responding to STX exposure in vitro by increasing the mRNA levels of antioxidant enzymes.

The blue mussel Mytilus chilensis is an endemic and key socioeconomic species inhabiting the southern coast of Chile. This bivalve species supports a booming aquaculture industry, which entirely relies on artificially collected seeds from natural beds that are translocated to diverse physical–chemical ocean farming conditions. Furthermore, mussel production is threatened by a broad range of microorganisms, pollution, and environmental stressors that eventually impact its survival and growth. Herein, understanding the genomic basis of the local adaption is pivotal to developing sustainable shellfish aquaculture. We present a high-quality reference genome of M. chilensis, which is the first chromosome-level genome for a Mytilidae member in South America. The assembled genome size was 1.93 Gb, with a contig N50 of 134 Mb. Through Hi-C proximity ligation, 11,868 contigs were clustered, ordered, and assembled into 14 chromosomes in congruence with the karyological evidence. The M. chilensis genome comprises 34,530 genes and 4795 non-coding RNAs. A total of 57% of the genome contains repetitive sequences with predominancy of LTR-retrotransposons and unknown elements. Comparative genome analysis of M. chilensis and M. coruscus was conducted, revealing genic rearrangements distributed into the whole genome. Notably, transposable Steamer-like elements associated with horizontal transmissible cancer were explored in reference genomes, suggesting putative relationships at the chromosome level in Bivalvia. Genome expression analysis was also conducted, showing putative genomic differences between two ecologically different mussel populations. The evidence suggests that local genome adaptation and physiological plasticity can be analyzed to develop sustainable mussel production. The genome of M. chilensis provides pivotal molecular knowledge for the Mytilus complex.

The growing amount of genome information and transcriptomes data available allows for a better understanding of biological processes. However, analysis of complex transcriptomic experimental designs involving different conditions, tissues, or times is relevant. This study proposes a novel approach to analyze complex data sets combining transcriptomes and miRNAs at the chromosome-level genome. Atlantic salmon smolts were transferred to seawater under two strategies: (i) fish group exposed to gradual salinity changes (GSC) and (ii) fish group exposed to a salinity shock (SS). Gills, intestine, and head kidney samples were used for total RNA extraction, followed by mRNA and small RNA illumina sequencing. Different expression patterns among the tissues and treatments were observed through a whole-genome transcriptomic approach. Chromosome regions highly expressed between experimental conditions included a great abundance of transposable elements. In addition, differential expression analysis showed a greater number of transcripts modulated in response to SS in gills and head kidney. miRNA expression analysis suggested a small number of miRNAs involved in the smoltification process. However, target analysis of these miRNAs showed a regulatory role in growth, stress response, and immunity. This study is the first to evidence the interplaying among mRNAs and miRNAs and the structural relationship at the genome level during Atlantic salmon smoltification.

Salmon aquaculture is constantly threatened by pathogens that impact fish health, welfare, and productivity, including the sea louse Caligus rogercresseyi. This marine ectoparasite is mainly controlled through delousing drug treatments that have lost efficacy. Therein, strategies such as salmon breeding selection represent a sustainable alternative to produce fish with resistance to sea lice. This study explored the whole-transcriptome changes in Atlantic salmon families with contrasting resistance phenotypes against lice infestation. In total, 121 Atlantic salmon families were challenged with 35 copepodites per fish and ranked after 14 infestation days. Skin and head kidney tissue from the top two lowest (R) and highest (S) infested families were sequenced by the Illumina platform. Genome-scale transcriptome analysis showed different expression profiles between the phenotypes. Significant differences in chromosome modulation between the R and S families were observed in skin tissue. Notably, the upregulation of genes associated with tissue repairs, such as collagen and myosin, was found in R families. Furthermore, skin tissue of resistant families showed the highest number of genes associated with molecular functions such as ion binding, transferase, and cytokine activity, compared with the susceptible. Interestingly, lncRNAs differentially modulated in the R/S families are located near genes associated with immune response, which are upregulated in the R family. Finally, SNPs variations were identified in both salmon families, where the resistant ones showed the highest number of SNPs variations. Remarkably, among the genes with SPNs, genes associated with the tissue repair process were identified. This study reported Atlantic salmon chromosome regions exclusively expressed in R or S Atlantic salmon families’ phenotypes. Furthermore, due to the presence of SNPs and high expression of tissue repair genes in the resistant families, it is possible to suggest mucosal immune activation associated with the Atlantic salmon resistance to sea louse infestation.

The host’s physiological history and environment determine the microbiome structure. In that sense, the strategy used for the salmon transfer to seawater after parr-smolt transformation may influence the Atlantic salmon’s intestinal microbiota. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the diversity and abundance of the Atlantic salmon intestinal microbiota and metagenome functional prediction during seawater transfer under three treatments. One group was exposed to gradual salinity change (GSC), the other to salinity shock (SS), and the third was fed with a functional diet (FD) before the seawater (SW) transfer. The microbial profile was assessed through full-16S rRNA gene sequencing using the Nanopore platform. In addition, metagenome functional prediction was performed using PICRUSt2. The results showed an influence of salinity changes on Atlantic salmon gut microbiota richness, diversity, and taxonomic composition. The findings reveal that GSC and the FD increased the Atlantic salmon smolt microbiota diversity, suggesting a positive association between the intestinal microbial community and fish health during seawater transfer. The reported knowledge can be applied to surveil the microbiome in smolt fish production, improving the performance of Atlantic salmon to seawater transfer.

Caligus rogercresseyi, commonly known as sea louse, is an ectoparasite copepod that impacts the salmon aquaculture in Chile, causing losses of hundreds of million dollars per year. This pathogen is mainly controlled by immersion baths with delousing drugs, which can lead to resistant traits selection in lice populations. Bioassays are commonly used to assess louse drug sensitivity, but the current procedures may mask relevant molecular responses. This study aimed to discover novel coding genes and non-coding RNAs that could evidence drug sensitivity at the genomic level. Sea lice samples from populations with contrasting sensitivity to delousing drugs were collected. Bioassays using azamethiphos, cypermethrin, and deltamethrin drugs were conducted to evaluate the sensitivity and to collect samples for RNA-sequencing. Transcriptome sequencing was conducted on samples exposed to each drug to evaluate the presence of coding and non-coding RNAs associated with the response of these compounds. The results revealed specific transcriptome patterns in lice exposed to azamethiphos, deltamethrin, and cypermethrin drugs. Enrichment analyses of Gene Ontology terms showed specific biological processes and molecular functions associated with each delousing drug analyzed. Furthermore, novel long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) were identified in C. rogercresseyi and tightly linked to differentially expressed coding genes. A significant correlation between gene transcription patterns and phenotypic effects was found in lice collected from different salmon farms with contrasting drug treatment efficacies. The significant correlation among gene transcription patterns with the historical background of drug sensitivity suggests novel molecular mechanisms of pharmacological resistance in lice populations.