Long-term monoculture of coconuts has resulted in several land-use-related concerns, such as decreasing land productivity, degraded soil, and ineffective resource utilization on a local and global level. Modifying traditional coconut farming with agroforestry concepts is a well-suited predominant nature-based solution for Sri Lanka as well as for other coconut-growing countries to achieve environmental, social, and economic benefits. By intentionally and intensively integrating annual and perennial plants with farm animals in a dynamic and interactive manner, this land-use system creates a sustainable harmonious mini-ecosystem with landscape restoration. Agroforestry mixed with coconut cultivation decreases the risk of crop failure, generates additional income sources, and balances the ecosystem functions by increasing species richness, enhancing soil physical, biological, and chemical properties, opening new carbon sequestration pathways, purifying air and water sources, and being an excellent feedstock source for bioenergy generation. This environmentally friendly farming will promote the Kyoto Protocol and lessen global warming by limiting the atmospheric buildup of greenhouse gases. A proper and accurate plan is required to implement a successful and profitable long-lived coconut-based agroforestry system. The objective of this paper is to recognize the various agroforestry concepts applicable to coconut-based farming, highlight the wide range of benefits and ecosystem services that can be gained through in-situ and ex-situ agroforestry practices, and explore the challenges that may arise during the integration of agroforestry techniques into a coconut-based farming system.

Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is a gift of nature and is cultivated worldwide because of its multiple uses. Based on the morphological characteristics of the coconut tree, when coconut is grown as a monocrop, land use efficiency is very low. According to previous findings, coconut monocropping planting systems and growth habits effectively used only 22% of the land area, while canopy space utilization was around 30%, and solar radiation was around 45%. Growing coconut along with a variety of other crops is a common practice in most coconut-growing regions to maximize land use efficiency. More than 100 different crops and systems have been identified that can be grown as intercrops with coconut cultivations. When growing intercrops in coconut plantations, the following factors need to be considered; the age of the coconut palms, water availability, shade of understory, soil characteristics, the slope of the land, labor availability, market demand, economic status of the grower, and social characteristics. This article discusses the significance and potential of intercropping and multiple-cropping systems appropriate for various coconut stands. The findings highlight an overview of profitable and sustainable intercrop species for coconut farming, as well as the benefits, constraints, and opportunities associated with various multiple-cropping systems. Finally, the study provides future research directions for the successful adaptation of coconut-based multiple cropping systems.

Coconut, as one of the main components of the daily Sri Lankan diet and one of the predominant crops grown in different agroecological zones except in higher elevations, has become a major export-earning crop at present. Its productivity is limited by adverse climatic changes in coconut growing areas, biotic and abiotic stresses, and poor agronomic practices. Cover cropping has been identified as a rewarding and time-tested farming solution that increases the productivity of most coconut lands while addressing the above issues. It is the practice of growing plants for modifying soil properties, controlling pests and diseases, facilitating crop growth and yield, reducing chemical dependency, enabling the coconut-animal farming system, and generating extra profit. Legumes, fodder and pasture grasses have been identified as the common and trending cover crops for Sri Lanka. Comprehensive knowledge of selecting suitable cover crops, planting materials and proper agronomic practices are important for a successful cover cropping system under coconut. Farmers avoid this practice due to their ignorance on cover cropping, and its benefits, and due to the aggressive characteristics of cover crops such as reappearing behaviour, being an alternative host for pathogens, and competitiveness for natural resources. In this review, the unique attributes of common cover crop species were explained. Furthermore, the variety of on-farm benefits and ecosystem services of cover cropping and some important agronomic considerations were reviewed. Finally, future research potential for recommending new species and their adaptability to a wide range of ecological and ecosystem circumstances under coconut cultivation were investigated.

Sustainable agriculture plays a crucial role in achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. This chapter analyzes the linkages between sustainable agriculture practices and specific SDGs, examining the potential of eco-friendly farming techniques to address socio-economic and environmental issues. It provides an overview of prominent goals directly influenced by agriculture like zero hunger, climate action, and responsible production and consumption. Additionally, it highlights innovative case studies that demonstrate how principles of regeneration and agroecology can drive progress on interlinked SDGs spanning poverty alleviation, clean water access, gender equality, and reduced inequalities. By synthesizing research on sustainable techniques like conservation agriculture, integrated farming systems, and organic agriculture, this chapter offers actionable recommendations for agricultural stakeholders to align with the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. It emphasizes the need for evidence-based, context-specific approaches that balance productivity, resilience, and environmental protection across local and global scales.

Potassium (K) is not easily assimilated into organic matter but helps to improve rice quality. Paddy yield and its quality depend on the correct time of fertilization and harvesting (days after flowering) in the field. Changes in the grain quality of (Oryza sativa L.) were studied in a field experiment over two dry seasons using three rates of muriate of potash (MOP; 60% K₂O) as 12.5, 25 and 37.5 kg/ha applied at the time of heading (7 weeks after planting—WAP). Paddy samples were harvested during 25, 30 (control), 35 and 40 days after 50% flowering (DAFF). Grain yield and physico-chemical characteristics of grain were studied after harvesting. The impact of seasons and treatments’ interactions was not statistically significant (P > 0.05) and, hence, data were averaged over two seasons. Length, breadth, true density and bulk density of rice grains were the highest with 37.5 kg MOP/ha applied at heading and harvested at 30–35 DAFF. Crude protein (6.24%) and crude fat (2.61%) contents in grains were the highest when harvested at 40 DAFF and 35–40 DAFF, respectively. Amylose content decreased with increased MOP rates at the time of heading and delayed paddy harvest. The highest average paddy yield (APY; 6.85 t/ha), head rice yield (HRY; 65%) and total rice milling yield (TMY; 67%) were recorded with 37.5 kg MOP/ha applied at heading of rice plant and paddy harvested at 35 DAFF. The APY, HRY and TMY were also 13.8, 7.7 and 5.9% higher, respectively, compared to the control. Applying K fertilizer at a rate 50% more (18.75 kg K/ha) than the recommended rate at the time of heading (7 WAP) and harvesting paddy at optimum maturity (35 DAFF), which is 5 days later than the recommendation, increase the yield and grain quality of direct seeded rice. Harvesting later than 35 DAFF resulted in a 10.5% loss of HRY (P < 0.05). The present study showed that K fertilizer applied at the rate of 37.5 kg MOP/ha at the time of heading 50% higher than the recommended rate is the best among K fertilizer treatments to obtain the highest HRY.