Objective Data on the relationship between tobacco use and metabolic risk among women with regard to their menopause status are scarce. This study assessed the prevalence of metabolic disorders in relation to smoking status in premenopausal and postmenopausal women. Methods A cross-sectional analysis of 7,462 randomly selected women aged 20 to 74 years who are participating in the WOBASZ (Polish National Multicentre Health Survey) was carried out. Lifestyle and menopause status details were collected via an interviewer-administered questionnaire. Weight, height, waist circumference, blood pressure, fasting plasma glucose, triglycerides, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels were measured by standard methods. Metabolic syndrome (MetS) was defined according to the International Diabetes Federation criteria. Results The prevalence of MetS was 3.3-fold higher among postmenopausal than premenopausal women. Regardless of menopause status, the prevalence of central obesity was significantly higher among never and past smokers versus current smokers (P < 0.001). Past smoking was associated with a significantly higher probability of elevated blood pressure, fasting plasma glucose, and MetS (P < 0.05). However, premenopausal never and past smokers had a substantially lower prevalence of decreased HDL-C than did current smokers. Among postmenopausal nonsmoking women, high levels of leisure time and commuting physical activity were associated with a reduced likelihood of MetS (P < 0.01). Making an additional adjustment for calorie consumption did not substantially influence the results. Conclusions Except for HDL-C level, not smoking is associated with an unfavorable metabolic profile in women, regardless of menopause status. High level of physical activity may reduce the prevalence of MetS among never and past smokers after the menopausal transition.

The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of lifetime physical activity (PA) on selected indices of atherosclerosis in longitudinal observation of middle-aged men. The subject of the study was a cohort of 101 men (mean age 59,7±9,0 years), free of cardiovascular symptoms and treatment, participating in follow-up examinations in the years 1985/90-2011/12. Self-report PA was assessed by interviewer-administered Seven-Day PA Recall and Historical PA questionnaire. Subclinical atherosclerosis was measured by assessing the coronary artery calcification (CAC) according to Agatston's method using multi-slice computed tomography; the carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) using high-resolution B-mode ultrasound; and the reactive hyperemia index (RHI) using peripheral arterial tonometry (EndoPAT2000). The participants were initially divided into three groups according to tertiles of exercise-related energy expenditure (EE) in kcal/week at baseline, i.e. 3840 (very high; n = 34). The low-to-moderate, high and very high PA groups were comparable in terms of age and atherosclerosis risk factors at baseline. No linear relationship was found between PA and CAC, IMT and RHI. Men who maintained low-to-moderate (n = 26), high (n = 21) and very high (n = 15) PA level had the mean CAC of 286.1±361.9, 10.7±28.9, and 106.1±278.3 (p<0.001 for low-to moderate vs high; p0.05); and the mean RHI of 1.69±0.4, 2.00±0.4, and 2.13±0.5 (p for trend = 0.050), respectively. No cases of CAC>400, IMT ≥0.9 and RHI<1.67 were noted only among men with maintained high PA level. At final examination men with high and very high PA had more favorable cardiometabolic profile than men with lower PA. Maintaining regular high PA level through young and middle adulthood may protect against atherosclerosis as measured by CAC, IMT and RHI.

The aim of the study was to estimate ten-year changes in physical activity (PA) patterns and sociodemographic determinants among adult residents of Poland. The study comprised two independent samples of randomly selected adults aged 20–74 years participating in the National Multicentre Health Survey WOBASZ (2003–2005; n = 14572) and WOBASZ II (2013–2014; n = 5694). In both surveys the measurements were performed by six academic centers in all 16 voivodships of Poland (108 measurement points in each survey). Sociodemographic data were collected by an interviewer-administered questionnaire in both surveys. Physical activity was assessed in three domains: leisure-time, occupational and commuting physical activity. Leisure-time PA changed substantially between the surveys (p<0.001). The prevalence of subjects being active on most days of week fell in both genders in the years 2003–2014 (37.4% vs 27.3% in men); 32.7% vs 28.3% in women. None or occasional activity increased from 49.6% to 56.8% in men, while remained stable in women (55.2% vs 54.9%). In both WOBASZ surveys the likelihood of physical inactivity was higher in less educated individuals, smokers and those living in large agglomerations (p<0.01). No significant changes were observed in occupational activity in men between the surveys, while in women percentage of sedentary work increased from 43.4% to % 49.4% (p<0.01). Commuting PA decreased significantly in both genders (p<0.001). About 79.3% of men and 71.3% of women reported no active commuting in the WOBASZ II survey. The observed unfavourable changes in PA emphasize the need for novel intervention concepts in order to reverse this direction. Further detailed monitoring of PA patterns in Poland is of particular importance.

The purpose of the study was to examine the association between leisure-time physical activity (LTPA), cardiovascular biomarkers and atherosclerosis among asymptomatic men with stable LTPA level throughout the 25-year prospective observation. Out of 101 asymptomatic men prospectively observed for their lifestyle and cardiovascular risk factors, the cohort of 62 individuals (mean age 59.9 years) maintained a stable LTPA level during the 25-year observation. Regular check-ups with the assessment of traditional risk factors, detailed measurements of LTPA level and aerobic capacity were performed since baseline. At the latest follow-up (2011/12) a set of cardiovascular biomarkers was measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Subclinical atherosclerosis was assessed by means of coronary artery calcification score and intima-media thickness (IMT). Endothelial function was evaluated by means of the reactive hyperemia index. The studied biomarkers and indices were analyzed in the three cohorts representing stable low-tomoderate (3840 kcal/week). At baseline the three cohorts were comparable in terms of age and clinical characteristics. At follow-up, the cohort with stable high LTPA (2050-3840 kcal/week) had significantly lower concentrations of hs-CRP (2.20 ± 1.0 mg/L), oxidized-LDL (68.35 ± 67.7 ng/mL), leptin (4.71 ± 3.07 ng/mL) and irisin (0.47 ± 0.13 μmol/L), and the most favorable indices of atherosclerosis and endothelial function as compared with other groups (p < 0.05). Regular marathon runners had increased concentrations of hsCRP (3.12 ± 1.4 mg/L), oxidized-LDL (249.8 ± 129 ng/ml), Interleukine-6 (3.74 ± 2.4 pg/ml). A positive correlation was observed between hsCRP and IMT (r = 0.301; p < 0.01), and irisin and IMT (r = 0.223; p < 0.05). The data suggest that stable high LTPA (2050-3840 kcal/week) is associated with the most favorable profile of key cardiovascular biomarkers and indices of atherosclerosis. Lifetime very high LTPA is associated with increased lowgrade inflammation and may, therefore, exert an atherogenic effect.