Rapid commercialisation of nano-enabled products (NEPs) elevates the potential environmental release of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) along the product life cycle. The current review examined the state of the art literature on aquatic environment exposure and ecotoxicity of product released (PR) engineered nanomaterials (PR–ENMs). Additionally, the data obtained were applied to estimate the risk posed by PR–ENMs to various trophic levels of aquatic biota as a means of identifying priority NEPs cases that may require attention with regards to examining environmental implications. Overall, the PR–ENMs are predominantly associated with the matrix of the respective NEPs, a factor that often hinders proper isolation of nano-driven toxicity effects. Nevertheless, some studies have attributed the toxicity basis of observed adverse effects to a combination of the released ions, ENMs and other components of NEPs. Notwithstanding the limitation of current ecotoxicology data limitations, the risk estimated herein points to an elevated risk towards fish arising from fabrics’ PR–nAg, and the considerable potential effects from sunscreens’ PR–nZnO and PR–nTiO₂ to algae, echinoderms, and crustaceans (PR–nZnO), whereas PR–nTiO₂ poses no significant risk to echinoderms. Considering that the current data limitations will not be overcome immediately, we recommend the careful application of similar risk estimation to isolate/prioritise cases of NEPs for detailed characterisation of ENMs’ release and effects in aquatic environments.

Industrialisation, population growth, and concomitant demand for fresh water have immensely impacted water quality and scarcity. In particular, wastewater generated from industries generally produces high amounts of nutrients, heavy metals, and chemicals that degrade the environment. Several algal species have been studied and utilized for their role in the treatment of various types of wastewater. Conventional wastewater treatment options are often expensive and energy-demanding, and generally ineffective at completely removing contaminants. Conversely, phycoremediation technology is an emerging green approach used to remove various types of pollutants from the environment while producing valuable compounds. Compared to conventional methods, phycoremediation presents as an eco-friendly and economically attractive alternative. This paper serves as a review of an algal-based treatment technology in wastewater remediation for industry, describing the most common microalgal consortia used for this purpose. Phycoremediation challenges and strategies to urgently accelerate steps towards achieving a clean and safe environment are presented, while examples of applications in industries are also provided.

Plastic pollution has emerged as one of the most pressing and multifaceted environmental challenges of the twenty-first century, largely due to its pervasive environmental persistence, ecological impact, and systemic threat to planetary boundaries. Among the various forms of plastic contaminants, microplastics , minute plastic particles typically smaller than 5 mm, have gained prominence as particularly insidious pollutants. These particles originate from the degradation of larger plastic debris or are intentionally manufactured for use in consumer products. Their widespread environmental presence has raised significant concerns regarding ecological integrity, human health risks, and the adequacy of current regulatory systems. This article undertakes a detailed legal and policy-oriented analysis of the regulatory responses to microplastic pollution at national, European Union (EU), and international levels. It systematically traces the evolution of the legal frameworks governing microplastics, beginning with early non-binding soft law instruments and fragmented sectoral regulations. Particular emphasis is placed on the progression toward more comprehensive and enforceable legislation, culminating in the 2023 EU REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals) restriction on synthetic polymer microparticles. The analysis highlights several critical legal and scientific challenges. These include definitional ambiguities regarding microplastics, the tension between fostering innovation and applying the precautionary principle, and the persistent difficulties in harmonizing enforcement mechanisms across jurisdictions. The paper also compares the EU’s regulatory developments with parallel international efforts, such as the amendments to the Basel Convention addressing plastic waste and the ongoing negotiations toward a binding global treaty on plastic pollution. In addition, the article scrutinizes the complexities of the international plastic trade and the policy dilemmas it presents, particularly in relation to regulatory coherence and compliance. The interplay between domestic legislation and transboundary environmental governance is critically assessed to reveal inconsistencies and legal vacuums that undermine regulatory efficacy. Finally, the paper identifies key opportunities for enhancing multilevel governance through improved legal design. By contextualizing legal instruments within broader policy frameworks, it offers strategic insights for strengthening regulatory responses to microplastic pollution in a globally interconnected and environmentally constrained world.

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are emerging contaminants of global concern, yet their ecological risks remain poorly defined due to limitations in current toxicity testing. Standard assays with Daphnia magna, a keystone grazer and regulatory model species, typically employ pristine, monodisperse polystyrene MNPs and focus on endpoints such as immobilisation or reproduction. This simplified approach neglects the freshwater cladoceran Daphnia magna's' ecological function, fails to capture the diversity and weathering of environmental plastics, and generates fragmented datasets that hinder meta-analysis and robust risk evaluation. To address these shortcomings, a tiered framework for MNP ecotoxicological assessment using D. magna that integrates ecological relevance, mechanistic insight, and systematic data harmonization is proposed. The framework progresses from acute endpoints (mobility, behaviour) to chronic assays (growth, reproduction, population dynamics), multigenerational studies (offspring quality, ephippial investment, sex ratio, transgenerational resilience), and mechanistic investigations employing omics and epigenetics. A central principle across all tiers is environmental realism, operationalised through the inclusion of MNP characterization, heterogeneous and weathered MNPs, diverse polymer chemistries, MNP physicochemical heterogeneity, and co-occurring environmental stressors. By systematically linking life-history traits with molecular and transgenerational endpoints under realistic exposure scenarios, the framework provides a more comprehensive understanding of MNP effects at both organismal and population levels. Importantly, it establishes protocols for endpoint selection, exposure duration, and test material characterisation, thereby improving comparability and reproducibility across studies. Adoption of this approach will help bridge the gap between laboratory testing and ecological risk assessment, enhancing predictive capacity on plastic pollution risks.